This work is supported by the US National Institutes of Health (R01GM111452) and the Welch Foundation (E-1721).

1. Preparation of labeled ribosome and tRNA for FRET detection
<ol>
	<li>Isolate ribosome without L27 from E. coli strain IW312 according to standard protocols20,21. Extract the regular ribosome from E. coli strain MRE600.</li>
	<li>Clone the L27&#39;s rpmA gene with C-terminal His-tag into pET-21b (+) plasmid, which is transformed and expressed in BL21(DE3)pLysS cells15. Purify the protein via a prepacked sepharose col...

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K., Wower, J., Zimmermann, R. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ribosomal+protein+L27+participates+in+both+50+S+subunit+assembly+and+the+peptidyl+transferase+reaction.">Ribosomal protein L27 participates in both 50 S subunit assembly and the peptidyl transferase reaction.</a> Journal of Biological Chemistry. 273 (31), 19847-19852 (1998).</li><li>Pan, D., Qin, H., Cooperman, B. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Synthesis+and+functional+activity+of+tRNAs+labeled+with+fluorescent+hydrazides+in+the+D-loop.">Synthesis and functional activity of tRNAs labeled with fluorescent hydrazides in the D-loop.</a> RNA. 15 (2), 346-354 (2009).</li><li>Yang, H., Xiao, M., Wang, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+novel+data-driven+algorithm+to+reveal+and+track+the+ribosome+heterogeneity+in+single+molecule+studies.">A novel data-driven algorithm to reveal and track the ribosome heterogeneity in single molecule studies.</a> Biophysical Chemistry. 199, 39-45 (2015).</li><li>Metskas, L. 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(149), e59918 (2019).</li><li>Desai, V., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Co-temporal+force+and+fluorescence+measurements+reveal+a+ribosomal+gear+shift+mechanism+of+translation+regulation+by+structured+mRNAs.">Co-temporal force and fluorescence measurements reveal a ribosomal gear shift mechanism of translation regulation by structured mRNAs.</a> Molecular Cell. 75 (5), 1007-1019 (2019).</li></ol>

SmFRET is sensitive to background signals. First, it is necessary to coat the sample chamber with 0.05% tween and then be added concurrently with the ribosome solution to block non-specific binding of the ribosome to the surface. To see fluorescence from the acceptor Cy5 emission, the oxygen scavenger cocktail (deoxy, glucose, and Trolox solutions) is essential. Without this solution, the bleaching is too fast in the acceptor channel to obtain useful information. Another critical step for ribosome experiments, specifical...

The ribosome is a &#248; 20 nm large ribonucleoprotein complex of a large (50S) and a small (30S) subunit. It assembles long peptides along the mRNA template processively and cooperatively. The ribosome 30S binds to the fMet-tRNAfMet and mRNA to start protein synthesis, and the 50S then joins to form the 70S initiation complex. The tRNAs bring amino acids to the ribosome at the A-site (aminoacyl- tRNA binding site), while the elongated peptidyl chain is held at the P-site (peptidyl- tRNA binding site). In the pre-translocation complex, the peptidyl chain is transferred to the tRNA at the A-site with one amino acid added. Meanwhile, the P-site tRNA is deacylated. Then, the A-, P- tRNAs move to the P-, E- sites to form the post-translocation complex, in which the E-site represents the tRNA exit site. In this state, the peptidyl-tRNA moves back to the P-site. The elongation cycle continues between the pre- and post-conformations while the ribosome translocates on the mRNA, one codon at a time1. The ribosome is highly coordinative of different functional sites to make this process efficient and accurate, such as inter-subunit ratcheting2, tRNA hybridization fluctuations3, GTPase activations4, L1 stalk opening-closing5, etc. Consequently, ribosomes quickly de-phase because every molecule moves at its own pace. The conventional methods can only deduce apparent average parameters, but low-populated or short-lived species will be masked in the average effect6. Single molecule method can break this limitation by detecting each ribosome individually, then identify different species via statistical reconstruction7. Different labeling sites have been implemented to probe ribosome dynamics, such as the interactions between tRNA-tRNA8, EF-G-L119, L1-tRNA10, etc. In addition, by labeling the large and small subunits, respectively, inter-subunit ratcheting kinetics and coordination with factors are observed11,12. Meanwhile, the smFRET method has broad applications in other central biological processes, and multi-color FRET methods are emerging13.
Previously a novel ribosome FRET pair was developed14,15. The recombinant ribosomal protein L27 has been expressed, purified, and labeled, and incorporated back into the ribosome. This protein interacted with the tRNAs at a close distance and helped stabilize the P-site tRNA in the post-translocation complex. When tRNA moved from the A- to the P-site, the distance between this protein and the tRNA is shortened, which can be distinguished by the smFRET signal. Multiple ribosome subpopulations have been identified using statistical methods and mutagenesis, and spontaneous exchange of these populations in the pre- but not post- translocation complex suggests the ribosome is more flexible before moving on the mRNA, and more rigid during decoding16,17,18. These variations are essential to the ribosome function. Here, the protocol describes the details of ribosome/tRNA-labeling, their incorporation in the ribosome, smFRET sample preparation, and data acquisition/analysis19.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Aminosilane</td>
			<td>Laysanbio</td>
			<td>MPEG-SIL-5000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Biotin-PEG</td>
			<td>Laysanbio</td>
			<td>Biotin-PEG-SVA-5000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BL21(DE3)pLysS cells</td>
			<td>Novagen</td>
			<td>71403</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Catalase</td>
			<td>millipore sigma</td>
			<td>C3515</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CS150FNX Micro Ultracentrifuge</td>
			<td>nuaire</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cy3/C5-maleimide</td>
			<td>ApexBio</td>
			<td>A8138/A8140</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ECLIPSE Ti2 inverted microscope</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EdgeGARD Laminar Flow Hood</td>
			<td>Baker</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glucose oxidase</td>
			<td>millipore sigma</td>
			<td>G2133</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Histrap HP column (Prepacked sepharose column)</td>
			<td>Cytiva</td>
			<td>17524701</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microscope cover slip</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>48393-230</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microscope glass slides</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>470235-792</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ORCA-Flash4.0 V3 camera</td>
			<td>Hamamatsu</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PEG (5,000)</td>
			<td>Laysanbio</td>
			<td>MPEG-SVA-5000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pET-21b (+) plasmid</td>
			<td>Novagen</td>
			<td>69741</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sonicator</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>CPX-952-518R</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TCEP</td>
			<td>Apexbio</td>
			<td>B6055</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trolox</td>
			<td>millipore sigma</td>
			<td>238813</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

single molecule fluorescence energy transfer study of ribosome protein synthesis

The ribosome is a large ribonucleoprotein complex that assembles proteins processively along mRNA templates. The diameter of the ribosome is approximately 20 nm to accommodate large tRNA substrates at the A-, P- and E-sites. Consequently, the ribosome dynamics are naturally de-phased quickly. Single molecule method can detect each ribosome separately and distinguish inhomogeneous populations, which is essential to reveal the complicated mechanisms of multi-component systems. We report the details of a smFRET method based on the Nikon Ti2 inverted microscope to probe the ribosome dynamics between the ribosomal protein L27 and tRNAs. The L27 is labeled at its unique Cys 53 position and reconstituted into a ribosome that is engineered to lack L27. The tRNA is labeled at its elbow region. As the tRNA moves to different locations inside the ribosome during the elongation cycle, such as pre- and post- translocation, the FRET efficiencies and dynamics exhibit differences, which have suggested multiple subpopulations. These subpopulations are not detectable by ensemble methods. The TIRF-based smFRET microscope is built on a manual or motorized inverted microscope, with home-built laser illumination. The ribosome samples are purified by ultracentrifugation, loaded into a home-built multi-channel sample cell and then illuminated via an evanescent laser field. The reflection laser spot can be used to achieve feedback control of perfect focus. The fluorescence signals are separated by a motorized filter-turret and collected by two digital CMOS cameras. The intensities are retrieved via the NIS-Elements software.

The smFRET had the ribosome labeled at the middle position of tRNA traffic, to distinguish the tRNA translocation from the A- to the P-site (Figure 1)15. The distance from the L27 labeling residue to the A- or P-site tRNA is 52 or 61 &#197;, respectively, corresponding to FRET efficiency of 0.47 and 0.65. After the image collection, fluorescence intensities from the donor and acceptor channels were retrieved and plotted as time lapses (Figure 1</s...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Single Molecule Fluorescence Energy Transfer Study of Ribosome Protein Synthesis at JoVE.com

Single Molecule Fluorescence Energy Transfer Study of Ribosome Protein Synthesis

Single molecule fluorescence energy transfer is a method that tracks the tRNA dynamics during ribosomal protein synthesis. By tracking individual ribosomes, inhomogeneous populations are identified, which shed light on mechanisms. This method can be used to track biological conformational changes in general to reveal dynamic-function relationships in many other complexed biosystems. Single molecule methods can observe non-rate limiting steps and low-populated key intermediates, which are not accessible by conventional ensemble methods due to the average effect.

The ribosome is a large ribonucleoprotein complex that assembles proteins processively along mRNA templates. The diameter of the ribosome is approximately ...

Single-molecule FRET can capture dynamics happening at nanometer distances, which is the right scale for ribosomal protein biosynthesis process. Ribosome works by coordinating multiple factors and components allosterically, which is intrinsically inhomogeneous. Single-molecule method can track each ribosome without being limited by this inhomogeneous average effect.This method will reveal how antibiotics inhibit ribosome function to develop new drugs toward drug-resistant bacterial infections. Begin by preparing the PRE by mixing the initiation EFTU, NOG, and PAG mix at the ratio of one-to-two-to-two at 37 degrees Celsius for two minutes. After incubation, purify the PRE using 1.1 molar sucrose cushion ultracentrifugation overnight at 100, 000 times G.Prepare the POST by mixing the initiation EFTU, WG, and PHE mix at a ratio of one-to-two-to two at 37 degrees Celsius for 10 minutes.After incubation, purify the POST using 1.1 molar sucrose cushion ultracentrifugation overnight at 100, 000 times G.Clean the microscope glass slides containing six pairs of holes that are one millimeter in diameter and the number 1.5 microscope glass coverslips. Bake the clean slides and coverslips at 300 degrees Celsius for three hours, then coat the coverslip with aminosaline. In a clean laminar hood, lay one coverslip flat on the surface.Carefully drop 60 microliters of PEG solution on the top edge, then lay another coverslip on top of it, letting the capillary effect spread the solution between them ensuring that no bubbles are formed. Repeat these steps for two more pairs of coverslips. Store these coverslips in an empty tip box filled with water and incubate them for three hours in the dark.After three hours, separate the coverslips, rinse with water in three consecutive crucibles and purge with a dry nitrogen stream. Pull sharp pipette tips through the holes on the glass slides until they fit tightly. Scrape the sharp ends off until they are completely flat with the glass surface, then cut a double-faced tape with the channel pattern on it.Stick the onto the glass slides on the flat side. Stick the coated coverslip onto the double-face tape and press on it to make a tight seal of the sample chamber, making sure the coated side is facing inward. Turn on the computer and the microscope switch.Start the laser control interface and turn on the laser. Push the enable button on the laser control box to warm up the laser. Turn on the cameras, then start the microscope-associated software program.Click the upper shutter off and click the lamp on. Prepare the TAM10 with Tween buffer by adding 10 microliters of 5%Tween-20 into one milliliter of TAM10 buffer. Prepare the deoxy solution by weighing three milligrams of glucose oxidase in a small microcentrifuge tube and add 45 microliters of catalase to it.Vortex the tube gently to dissolve the solid. Spin at 20, 000 times G in a microcentrifuge for one minute and take the supernatant. Prepare 30%glucose solution, 200 millimolar Trolox solution and 0.5 milligrams per milliliter of streptavidin solution following instructions in the text manuscript.Add one drop of imaging oil to the turf objective. Put the sample chambers on the objective. Fill the chamber with 10 microliters of streptavidin solution and wait for one minute.Wash the chamber with 30 microliters of TAM10 with Tween buffer, collecting the run-through solution with a folded filter paper. Wait for one minute after washing. Dilute the ribosome complexes PRE or POST to 10-15 nanomolar concentrations with TAM10 with Tween buffer.Load 20 microliters of the ribosome sample into the channel and wait for two minutes. Make the imaging buffer using 50 microliters of TAM10 buffer and 0.5 microliters each of deoxyglucose and Trolox solution. Mix them well.Flush the chamber with 30 milliliters of the imaging buffer. Set the camera for acquiring images. Click the upper shutter on and the lamp off.Start the camera acquisition and spread the images into three windows representing two individual cameras and the overlay. Under the acquire menu, select capture timelapse, and then click on capture automatically. Set the appropriate file name, file path, and the number of loops and click on run now.Close the pop-up window once the image acquisition is complete and then open the acquired ND file. Click on ROI, simple ROI editor and choose the option circle. Select the ROI on the image and click on finish when it is completed.Click on measurement, time measurement to show the data either as a plot or a spreadsheet. Open the export tab to set the export parameters, then click on export to save the intensities. Finally, open the file which has been exported using a suitable application.The distance from the L27 labeling residue to the A-site or P-site tRNA is 61 or 52 angstrom respectively, corresponding to FRET efficiency of 0.47 and 0.65. Florescence intensities from the donor and acceptor channels were retrieved and plotted as timelapses. After donor bleaching, both traces approached the baseline because no excitation could occur directly on the acceptor.After acceptor bleaching, the donor intensity increased because fewer reaction pathways dissipated the excitation energy. The individual ribosomes exhibited different fluctuations due to the wobbling motion of the tRNAs, which caused distance fluctuations to the L27. Other methods like Puromycin assay, assay, toeprinting assay and mass spec are complimentary to single-molecule FRET method and reveal more details about protein synthesis.Single-molecule FRET has a broad application because many biological processes happen in the nanometer range and at millisecond timescales. By tagging proper dyes at proper positions, many other dynamics can be revealed.

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2.5K ビュー.  University of Houston. 単一分子FRETは、リボソームタンパク質生合成プロセスに適したスケールであるナノメートルの距離で起こっているダイナミクスを捕捉することができます。リボソームは、複数の因子と成分を同種に調整することによって機能し、これは本質的に不均一である。単一分子法は、この不均一な平均効果によって制限されることなく、各リボソームを追跡することができる?...

ビデオ: Single Molecule Fluorescence Energy Transfer Study of Ribosome Protein Synthesis

Single molecule fluorescence energy transfer is a method that tracks the tRNA dynamics during ribosomal protein synthesis. By tracking individual ribosomes, inhomogeneous populations are identified, which shed light on mechanisms. This method can be used to track biological conformational changes in general to reveal dynamic-function relationships in many other complexed biosystems. Single molecule methods can observe non-rate limiting steps and low-populated key intermediates, which are not...

using in vitro fluorescence resonance energy transfer to study the dynamics of protein complexes at a millisecond time scale

Using In Vitro Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer to Study the Dynamics Of Protein Complexes at a Millisecond Time Scale

Protein-protein interactions are critical for biological systems, and studies of the binding kinetics provide insights into the dynamics and function of protein complexes. We describe a method that quantifies the kinetic parameters of a protein complex using fluorescence resonance energy transfer and the stopped-flow technique.

dual dna rulers to study the mechanism of ribosome translocation with single-nucleotide resolution

Dual DNA Rulers to Study the Mechanism of Ribosome Translocation with Single-Nucleotide Resolution

Dual DNA ruler assay is developed to determine the mRNA position during ribosome translocation, which relies on the dissociation forces of the formed DNA-mRNA duplexes. With single-nucleotide resolution and capability of reaching both ends of mRNA, it can provide mechanistic insights for ribosome translocation and probe other nucleic acid...

single-molecule f&ouml;rster resonance energy transfer methods for real-time investigation of the holliday junction resolution by gen1

Single-Molecule F&amp;#246;rster Resonance Energy Transfer Methods for Real-Time Investigation of the Holliday Junction Resolution by GEN1

Presented here is a protocol for performing single-molecule F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer to study HJ resolution. Two-color alternating excitation is used for determining the dissociation constants. Single-color time lapse smFRET is then applied in real-time cleavage assays to obtain the dwell time distribution prior to HJ...

Single-Molecule F&ouml;rster Resonance Energy Transfer Methods for Real-Time Investigation of the Holliday Junction Resolution by GEN1

using three-color single-molecule fret to study the correlation of protein interactions

Using Three-color Single-molecule FRET to Study the Correlation of Protein Interactions

Here, we present a protocol to obtain three-color smFRET data and its analysis with a 3D ensemble Hidden Markov Model. With this approach, scientists can extract kinetic information from complex protein systems, including cooperativity or correlated...

oaaep1-mediated enzymatic synthesis and immobilization of polymerized protein for single-molecule force spectroscopy

OaAEP1-Mediated Enzymatic Synthesis and Immobilization of Polymerized Protein for Single-Molecule Force Spectroscopy

Here, we present a protocol to conjugate protein monomer by enzymes forming protein polymer with a controlled sequence and immobilize it on the surface for single-molecule force spectroscopy...

real-time monitoring of ligand-receptor interactions with fluorescence resonance energy transfer

Real-time Monitoring of Ligand-receptor Interactions with Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer

We demonstrate FRET between conjugated polymer polydiacetylene (PDA) and fluorophore attached to the surface of PDA liposomes for the sensing of biomolecules.  PDA liposomes also contained receptor molecules on their surfaces for biomolecules to be used as probes. Ligand-receptor interactions lead to changes in the FRET efficiency between the fluorophore and PDA which is the basis of the sensing...

combining single-molecule manipulation and imaging for the study of protein-dna interactions

Combining Single-molecule Manipulation and Imaging for the Study of Protein-DNA Interactions

Here we describe the instrumentation and methods for detecting single fluorescently-labeled protein molecules interacting with a single DNA molecule suspended between two optically trapped...

single-molecule imaging of halo-tagged proteins to study protein-condensate interactions

Single-Molecule Imaging of Halo-Tagged Proteins to Study Protein-Condensate Interactions

visualizing single-molecule dna replication with fluorescence microscopy

Visualizing Single-molecule DNA Replication with Fluorescence Microscopy

This protocol demonstrates a simple single-molecule fluorescence microscopy technique for visualizing DNA replication by individual replisomes in real...

single-molecule measurement of protein interaction dynamics within biomolecular condensates

Author Spotlight: Evaluation of Protein-Condensate Dynamics in Live Human Cells

Many intrinsically disordered proteins have been shown to participate in the formation of highly dynamic biomolecular condensates, a behavior important for numerous cellular processes. Here, we present a single-molecule imaging-based method for quantifying the dynamics by which proteins interact with each other in biomolecular condensates in live...

Live Cell Single-Molecule Imaging-Based Quantification of Protein Interactions

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investigating protein-protein interactions in live cells using bioluminescence resonance energy transfer

Investigating Protein-protein Interactions in Live Cells Using Bioluminescence Resonance Energy Transfer

Interactions between proteins are fundamental to all cellular processes. Using Bioluminescence Resonance Energy Transfer, the interaction between a pair of proteins can be monitored in live cells and in real time. Furthermore, the effects of potentially pathogenic mutations can be...

single molecule fluorescence microscopy on planar supported bilayers

Single Molecule Fluorescence Microscopy on Planar Supported Bilayers

Preparation of protein-functionalized planar glass-supported lipid bilayers, determination of protein mobility within and measurement of protein densities is shown here. A roadmap to building a noise-reduced Total Internal Reflection microscope is outlined, which allows visualizing single bilayer-resident fluorochromes with high spatiotemporal resolution.

Single-Molecule Measurement of Protein Interaction Dynamics Within Biomolecular Condensates

characterizing single-molecule conformational changes under shear flow with fluorescence microscopy

Characterizing Single-Molecule Conformational Changes Under Shear Flow with Fluorescence Microscopy

We present a protocol for immobilizing single macromolecules in microfluidic devices and quantifying changes in their conformations under shear flow. This protocol is useful for characterizing the biomechanical and functional properties of biomolecules such as proteins and DNA in a flow...

surface passivation for single-molecule protein studies

Surface Passivation for Single-molecule Protein Studies

We describe a method for passivating a glass surface using polyethylene glycol (PEG). This protocol covers surface cleaning, surface functionalization, and PEG coating. We introduce a new strategy for treating the surface with PEG molecules over two rounds, which yields superior quality of passivation compared to existing...

high-resolution spatiotemporal analysis of receptor dynamics by single-molecule fluorescence microscopy

High-resolution Spatiotemporal Analysis of Receptor Dynamics by Single-molecule Fluorescence Microscopy

This protocol describes how to use total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy to visualize and track single receptors on the surface of living cells and thereby analyze receptor lateral mobility, size of receptor complexes as well as to visualize transient receptor-receptor interactions. This protocol can be extended to other membrane proteins.

automated system for single molecule fluorescence measurements of surface-immobilized biomolecules

Automated System for Single Molecule Fluorescence Measurements of Surface-immobilized Biomolecules

In this article we describe how we obtain FRET traces from individual DNA molecules immobilized to a surface using an automated scanning confocal microscope.

fluorescence anisotropy as a tool to study protein-protein interactions

Fluorescence Anisotropy as a Tool to Study Protein-protein Interactions

Protein interactions are at the heart of a cell&#39;s function. Calorimetric and spectroscopic techniques are commonly used to characterize them. Here we describe fluorescence anisotropy as a tool to study the interaction between the protein mutated in the Shwachman-Diamond Syndrome (SBDS) and the Elongation factor-like 1 GTPase...

Protein-protein interactions play an essential role in the function of a living organism. Once an interaction has been identified and validated it is necessary to characterize it at the structural and mechanistic level. Several biochemical and biophysical methods exist for such purpose. Among them, fluorescence anisotropy is a powerful technique particularly used when the fluorescence intensity of a fluorophore-labeled protein remains constant upon protein-protein interaction. In this technique, a fluorophore-labeled protein is excited with vertically polarized light of an appropriate wavelength that selectively excites a subset of the fluorophores according to their relative orientation with the incoming beam. The resulting emission also has a directionality whose relationship in the vertical and horizontal planes defines anisotropy (r) as follows: r=(IVV-IVH)/(IVV+2IVH), where IVV and IVH are the fluorescence intensities of the vertical and horizontal components, respectively. Fluorescence anisotropy is sensitive to the rotational diffusion of a fluorophore, namely the apparent molecular size of a fluorophore attached to a protein, which is altered upon protein-protein interaction. In the present text, the use of fluorescence anisotropy as a tool to study protein-protein interactions was exemplified to address the binding between the protein mutated in the Shwachman-Diamond Syndrome (SBDS) and the Elongation factor like-1 GTPase (EFL1). Conventionally, labeling of a protein with a fluorophore is carried out on the thiol groups (cysteine) or in the amino groups (the N-terminal amine or lysine) of the protein. However, SBDS possesses several cysteines and lysines that did not allow site directed labeling of it. As an alternative technique, the dye 4&#39;,5&#39;-bis(1,3,2 dithioarsolan-2-yl) fluorescein was used to specifically label a tetracysteine motif, Cys-Cys-Pro-Gly-Cys-Cys, genetically engineered in the C-terminus of the recombinant SBDS protein. Fitting of the experimental data provided quantitative and mechanistic information on the binding mode between these proteins.

Protein interactions are at the heart of a cell&#39;s function. Calorimetric and spectroscopic techniques are commonly used to characterize them. Here we describe fluorescence anisotropy as a tool to study the interaction between the protein mutated in the Shwachman-Diamond Syndrome (SBDS) and the Elongation factor-like 1 GTPase (EFL1).

Protein-protein interactions play an essential role in the function of a living organism. Once an interaction has been identified and validated it is ...

Single-molecule F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer (smFRET) has become a widely used biophysical technique to study the dynamics of biomolecules. For many molecular machines in a cell proteins have to act together&#160;with interaction partners in a functional cycle to fulfill their task. The extension of two-color to multi-color smFRET makes it possible to simultaneously probe more than one interaction or conformational change. This not only adds a new dimension to smFRET experiments but it also offers the unique possibility to directly study the sequence of events and to detect correlated interactions when using an immobilized sample and a total internal reflection fluorescence microscope (TIRFM). Therefore, multi-color smFRET is a versatile tool for studying biomolecular complexes in a quantitative manner and in a previously unachievable detail.
Here, we demonstrate how to overcome the special challenges of multi-color smFRET experiments on proteins. We present detailed protocols for obtaining the data and for extracting kinetic information. This includes trace selection criteria, state separation, and the recovery of state trajectories from the noisy data using a 3D ensemble Hidden Markov Model (HMM). Compared to other methods, the kinetic information is not recovered from dwell time histograms but directly from the HMM. The maximum likelihood framework allows us to critically evaluate the kinetic model and to provide meaningful uncertainties for the rates.
By applying our method to the heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90), we are able to disentangle the nucleotide binding and the global conformational changes of the protein. This allows us to directly observe the cooperativity between the two nucleotide binding pockets of the Hsp90 dimer.

Here, we present a protocol to obtain three-color smFRET data and its analysis with a 3D ensemble Hidden Markov Model. With this approach, scientists can extract kinetic information from complex protein systems, including cooperativity or correlated interactions.

Single-molecule F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer (smFRET) has become a widely used biophysical technique to study the dynamics of biomolecules. For ...

Covalent Immobilization of Proteins for the Single Molecule Force Spectroscopy

In recent years, atomic force microscopy (AFM) based single molecule force spectroscopy (SMFS) extended our understanding of molecular properties and functions. It gave us the opportunity to explore a multiplicity of biophysical mechanisms, e.g., how bacterial adhesins bind to host surface receptors in more detail. Among other factors, the success of SMFS experiments depends on the functional and native immobilization of the biomolecules of interest on solid surfaces and AFM tips. Here, we describe a straightforward protocol for the covalent coupling of proteins to silicon surfaces using silane-PEG-carboxyls and the well-established N-hydroxysuccinimid/1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethyl-aminopropyl)carbodiimid (EDC/NHS) chemistry in order to explore the interaction of pilus-1 adhesin RrgA from the Gram-positive bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae (S. pneumoniae) with the extracellular matrix protein fibronectin (Fn). Our results show that the surface functionalization leads to a homogenous distribution of Fn on the glass surface and to an appropriate concentration of RrgA on the AFM cantilever tip, apparent by the target value of up to 20% of interaction events during SMFS measurements and revealed that RrgA binds to Fn with a mean force of 52 pN. The protocol can be adjusted to couple via site specific free thiol groups. This results in a predefined protein or molecule orientation and is suitable for other biophysical applications besides the SMFS.

This protocol describes the covalent immobilization of proteins with a heterobifunctional silane coupling agent to silicon-oxide surfaces designed for the atomic force microscopy based single molecule force spectroscopy which is exemplified by the interaction of RrgA (pilus-1 tip adhesin of S. pneumoniae) with fibronectin.

In recent years, atomic force microscopy (AFM) based single molecule force spectroscopy (SMFS) extended our understanding of molecular properties and ...

Proteins are the primary operators of biological systems, and they usually interact with other macro- or small molecules to carry out their biological functions. Such interactions can be highly dynamic, meaning the interacting subunits are constantly associated and dissociated at certain rates. While measuring the binding affinity using techniques such as quantitative pull-down reveals the strength of the interaction, studying the binding kinetics provides insights on how fast the interaction occurs and how long each complex can exist. Furthermore, measuring the kinetics of an interaction in the presence of an additional factor, such as a protein exchange factor or a drug, helps reveal the mechanism by which the interaction is regulated by the other factor, providing important knowledge for the advancement of biological and medical research. Here, we describe a protocol for measuring the binding kinetics of a protein complex that has a high intrinsic association rate and can be dissociated quickly by another protein. The method uses fluorescence resonance energy transfer to report the formation of the protein complex in vitro, and it enables monitoring the fast association and dissociation of the complex in real time on a stopped-flow fluorimeter. Using this assay, the association and dissociation rate constants of the protein complex are quantified.

Protein-protein interactions are critical for biological systems, and studies of the binding kinetics provide insights into the dynamics and function of protein complexes. We describe a method that quantifies the kinetic parameters of a protein complex using fluorescence resonance energy transfer and the stopped-flow technique. &#160;

Proteins are the primary operators of biological systems, and they usually interact with other macro- or small molecules to carry out their biological ...

The ribosome translocation refers to the ribosomal movement on the mRNA by exactly three nucleotides (nt), which is the central step in protein synthesis. To investigate its mechanism, there are two essential technical requirements. First is single-nt resolution that can resolve normal translocation from frameshifting, during which the ribosome moves by other than 3 nt. The second is the capability to probe both the entrance and exit sides of mRNA in order to elucidate the whole picture of translocation. We report the dual DNA ruler assay that is based on the critical dissociation forces of DNA-mRNA duplexes, obtained by force-induced remnant magnetization spectroscopy (FIRMS).&#160; With 2-4 pN force resolution, the dual ruler assay is sufficient to distinguish different translocation steps. By implementing a long linker on the probing DNAs, they can reach the mRNA on the opposite side of the ribosome, so that the mRNA position can be determined for both sides. Therefore, the dual ruler assay is uniquely suited to investigate the ribosome translocation, and nucleic acid motion in general. We show representative results which indicated a looped mRNA conformation and resolved normal translocation from frameshifting.

Dual DNA ruler assay is developed to determine the mRNA position during ribosome translocation, which relies on the dissociation forces of the formed DNA-mRNA duplexes. With single-nucleotide resolution and capability of reaching both ends of mRNA, it can provide mechanistic insights for ribosome translocation and probe other nucleic acid displacements.

The ribosome translocation refers to the ribosomal movement on the mRNA by exactly three nucleotides (nt), which is the central step in protein synthesis. ...

Chemical and bio-conjugation techniques have been developed rapidly in recent years and allow the building of protein polymers. However, a controlled protein polymerization process is always a challenge. Here, we have developed an enzymatic methodology for constructing polymerized protein step by step in a rationally-controlled sequence. In this method, the C-terminus of a protein monomer is NGL for protein conjugation using OaAEP1 (Oldenlandia affinis asparaginyl endopeptidases) 1) while the N-terminus was a cleavable TEV (tobacco etch virus) cleavage site plus an L (ENLYFQ/GL) for temporary N-terminal protecting. Consequently, OaAEP1 was able to add only one protein monomer at a time, and then the TEV protease cleaved the N-terminus between Q and G to expose the NH2-Gly-Leu. Then the unit is ready for next OaAEP1 ligation. The engineered polyprotein is examined by unfolding individual protein domain using atomic force microscopy-based single-molecule force spectroscopy (AFM-SMFS). Therefore, this study provides a useful strategy for polyprotein engineering and immobilization.

Here, we present a protocol to conjugate protein monomer by enzymes forming protein polymer with a controlled sequence and immobilize it on the surface for single-molecule force spectroscopy studies.

Chemical and bio-conjugation techniques have been developed rapidly in recent years and allow the building of protein polymers. However, a controlled ...

Single Cell Analysis Of Transcriptionally Active Alleles By Single Molecule FISH

Gene transcription is an essential process in cell biology, and allows cells to interpret and respond to internal and external cues. Traditional bulk population methods (Northern blot, PCR, and RNAseq) that measure mRNA levels lack the ability to provide information on cell-to-cell variation in responses. Precise single cell and allelic visualization and quantification is possible via single molecule RNA fluorescence in situ hybridization (smFISH). RNA-FISH is performed by hybridizing target RNAs with labeled oligonucleotide probes. These can be imaged in medium/high throughput modalities, and, through image analysis pipelines, provide quantitative data on both mature and nascent RNAs, all at the single cell level. The fixation, permeabilization, hybridization and imaging steps have been optimized in the lab over many years using the model system described herein, which results in successful and robust single cell analysis of smFISH labeling. The main goal with sample preparation and processing is to produce high quality images characterized by a high signal-to-noise ratio to reduce false positives and provide data that are more accurate. Here, we present a protocol describing the pipeline from sample preparation to data analysis in conjunction with suggestions and optimization steps to tailor to specific samples.&#160;

Single molecule RNA fluorescence in situ hybridization (smFISH) is a method to accurately quantify levels and localization of specific RNAs at the single cell level. Here, we report our validated lab protocols for wet-bench processing, imaging and image analysis for single cell quantification of specific RNAs.

Gene transcription is an essential process in cell biology, and allows cells to interpret and respond to internal and external cues. Traditional bulk ...

F&#246;rster Resonance Energy Transfer Measurements in Living Plant Cells

Sensitized emission-based F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET) experiments are easily done but depend on the microscopic setup. Confocal laser scanning microscopes have become a workhorse for biologists. Commercial systems offer high flexibility in laser power adjustment and detector sensitivity and often combine different detectors to obtain the perfect image. However, the comparison of intensity-based data from different experiments and setups is often impossible due to this flexibility. Biologist-friendly procedures are of advantage and allow for simple and reliable adjustment of laser and detector settings. 
Furthermore, as FRET experiments in living cells are affected by the variability in protein expression and donor-acceptor ratios, protein expression levels must be considered for data evaluation. Described here is a simple protocol for reliable and reproducible FRET measurements, including routines for the estimation of protein expression and adjustment of laser intensity and detector settings. Data evaluation will be performed by calibration with a fluorophore fusion of known FRET efficiency. To improve simplicity, correction factors have been compared that have been obtained in cells and by measuring recombinant fluorescent proteins.

F&amp;#246;rster Resonance Energy Transfer Measurements in Living Plant Cells

A protocol is provided for setting up a standard confocal laser-scanning microscope for in vivo F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer measurements, followed by data evaluation.

Sensitized emission-based F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET) experiments are easily done but depend on the microscopic setup. Confocal laser ...

Dual-Color Fluorescence Cross-Correlation Spectroscopy to Study Protein-Protein Interaction and Protein Dynamics in Live Cells

We present a protocol and workflow to perform live cell dual-color fluorescence cross-correlation spectroscopy (FCCS) combined with F&#246;rster Resonance Energy transfer (FRET) to study membrane receptor dynamics in live cells using modern fluorescence labeling techniques. In dual-color FCCS, where the fluctuations in fluorescence intensity represent the dynamic &#34;fingerprint&#34; of the respective fluorescent biomolecule, we can probe co-diffusion or binding of the receptors. FRET, with its high sensitivity to molecular distances, serves as a well-known &#34;nanoruler&#34; to monitor intramolecular changes. Taken together, conformational changes and key parameters such as local receptor concentrations and mobility constants become accessible in cellular settings.
Quantitative fluorescence approaches are challenging in cells due to high noise levels and the vulnerability of the sample. Here we show how to perform this experiment, including the calibration steps using dual-color labeled &#946;2-adrenergic receptor (&#946;2AR) labeled with eGFP and SNAP-tag-TAMRA. A step-by-step data analysis procedure is provided using open-source software and templates that are easy to customize.
Our guideline enables researchers to unravel molecular interactions of biomolecules in live cells in situ with high reliability despite the limited signal-to-noise levels in live cell experiments. The operational window of FRET and particularly FCCS at low concentrations allows quantitative analysis at near-physiological conditions.

We present an experimental protocol and data analysis workflow to perform live cell dual-color fluorescence cross correlation spectroscopy (FCCS) combined with F&#246;rster Resonance Energy transfer (FRET) to study membrane receptor dynamics in live cells using modern fluorescence labeling techniques.

We present a protocol and workflow to perform live cell dual-color fluorescence cross-correlation spectroscopy (FCCS) combined with F&#246;rster Resonance ...

An Optimized Single-Molecule Pull-Down Assay for Quantification of Protein Phosphorylation

Phosphorylation is a necessary posttranslational modification that regulates protein function and directs cell signaling outcomes. Current methods to measure protein phosphorylation cannot preserve the heterogeneity in phosphorylation across individual proteins. The single-molecule pull-down (SiMPull) assay was developed to investigate the composition of macromolecular complexes via immunoprecipitation of proteins on a glass coverslip followed by single-molecule imaging. The current technique is an adaptation of SiMPull that provides robust quantification of the phosphorylation state of full-length membrane receptors at the single-molecule level. Imaging thousands of individual receptors in this way allows for quantifying protein phosphorylation patterns. The present protocol details the optimized SiMPull procedure, from sample preparation to imaging. Optimization of glass preparation and antibody fixation protocols further enhances data quality. The current protocol provides code for the single-molecule data analysis that calculates the fraction of receptors phosphorylated within a sample. While this work focuses on phosphorylation of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), the protocol can be generalized to other membrane receptors and cytosolic signaling molecules.

The present protocol describes sample preparation and data analysis to quantify protein phosphorylation using an improved single-molecule pull-down (SiMPull) assay.

Phosphorylation is a necessary posttranslational modification that regulates protein function and directs cell signaling outcomes. Current methods to ...