Name: trace fear conditioning in mice
Uploaded: 2014-03-20T18:45:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Trace Fear Conditioning in Mice at JoVE.com

This work is supported by a Baylor University Research Council grant and from a research grant from the Epilepsy Foundation.

The mice used in the following experiment were generated and housed at Baylor University at an ambient temperature of 22 &#176;C, with a 14&#160;hr light and 10&#160;hr dark (20:00 to 6:00 hr) diurnal cycle. The mice were given ad libitum access to food and water. All procedures to the mice were in compliance with the National Institutes of Health Guidelines for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals and the animal protocol was approved by Baylor University Animal Care and Use Committee.
<p class="jove_step"...

<ol>
	<li>Powell, R. A., Honey, P. L., Symbaluk, D. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Introduction to learning and behavior. , .</li><li>Tsaltas, E., Preston, G. C., Gray, J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+effects+of+dorsal+bundle+lesions+on+serial+and+trace+conditioning.">The effects of dorsal bundle lesions on serial and trace conditioning.</a> Behav. Brain Res. 10, 361-374 (1983).</li><li>McAlonan, G. M., Dawson, G. R., Wilkinson, L. O., Robbins, T. W., Everitt, B. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+effects+of+AMPA-induced+lesions+of+the+medial+septum+and+vertical+limb+nucleus+of+the+diagonal+band+of+Broca+on+spatial+delayed+non-matching+to+sample+and+spatial+learning+in+the+water+maze.">The effects of AMPA-induced lesions of the medial septum and vertical limb nucleus of the diagonal band of Broca on spatial delayed non-matching to sample and spatial learning in the water maze.</a> Eur. J. Neurosci. 7, 1034-1049 (1995).</li><li>Chowdhury, N., Quinn, J. J., Fanselow, M. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dorsal+hippocampus+involvement+in+trace+fear+conditioning+with+long,+but+not+short,+trace+intervals+in+mice.">Dorsal hippocampus involvement in trace fear conditioning with long, but not short, trace intervals in mice.</a> Behav. Neurosci. 119, 1396-1402 (2005).</li><li>Quinn, J. J., Oommen, S. S., Morrison, G. E., Fanselow, M. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Post-training+excitotoxic+lesions+of+the+dorsal+hippocampus+attenuate+forward+trace,+backward+trace,+and+delay+fear+conditioning+in+a+temporally+specific+manner.">Post-training excitotoxic lesions of the dorsal hippocampus attenuate forward trace, backward trace, and delay fear conditioning in a temporally specific manner.</a> Hippocampus. 12, 495-504 (2002).</li><li>Misane, I., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Time-dependent+involvement+of+the+dorsal+hippocampus+in+trace+fear+conditioning+in+mice.">Time-dependent involvement of the dorsal hippocampus in trace fear conditioning in mice.</a> Hippocampus. 15, 418-426 (2005).</li><li>Quinn, J. J., Loya, F., Ma, Q. D., Fanselow, M. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dorsal+hippocampus+NMDA+receptors+differentially+mediate+trace+and+contextual+fear+conditioning.">Dorsal hippocampus NMDA receptors differentially mediate trace and contextual fear conditioning.</a> Hippocampus. 15, 665-674 (2005).</li><li>McEchron, M. D., Bouwmeester, H., Tseng, W., Weiss, C., Disterhoft, J. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hippocampectomy+disrupts+auditory+trace+fear+conditioning+and+contextual+fear+conditioning+in+the+rat.">Hippocampectomy disrupts auditory trace fear conditioning and contextual fear conditioning in the rat.</a> Hippocampus. 8, 638-646 (1998).</li><li>Wiltgen, B. J., Sanders, M. J., Ferguson, C., Homanics, G. E., Fanselow, M. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Trace+fear+conditioning+is+enhanced+in+mice+lacking+the+delta+subunit+of+the+GABAA+receptor.">Trace fear conditioning is enhanced in mice lacking the delta subunit of the GABAA receptor.</a> Learn. Mem. 12, 327-333 (2005).</li><li>Davis, R. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genetic+basis+for+susceptibility+to+noise-induced+hearing+loss+in+mice.">Genetic basis for susceptibility to noise-induced hearing loss in mice.</a> Hear. Res. 155, 82-90 (2001).</li><li>Zheng, Q. Y., Johnson, K. R., Erway, L. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Assessment+of+hearing+in+80+inbred+strains+of+mice+by+ABR+threshold+analyses.">Assessment of hearing in 80 inbred strains of mice by ABR threshold analyses.</a> Hear. Res. 130, 94-107 (1999).</li><li>Moyer, J. R., Thompson, L. T., Disterhoft, J. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Trace+eyeblink+conditioning+increases+CA1+excitability+in+a+transient+and+learning-specific+manner.">Trace eyeblink conditioning increases CA1 excitability in a transient and learning-specific manner.</a> 16, 5536-5546 (1996).</li><li>Leuner, B., Falduto, J., Shors, T. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Associative+memory+formation+increases+the+observation+of+dendritic+spines+in+the+hippocampus.">Associative memory formation increases the observation of dendritic spines in the hippocampus.</a> J. Neurosci. 23, 659-665 (2003).</li><li>McEchron, M. D., Disterhoft, J. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hippocampal+encoding+of+non-spatial+trace+conditioning.">Hippocampal encoding of non-spatial trace conditioning.</a> Hippocampus. 9, 385-396 (1999).</li><li>McLaughlin, J., Skaggs, H., Churchwell, J., Powell, D. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Medial+prefrontal+cortex+and+pavlovian+conditioning:+trace+versus+delay+conditioning.">Medial prefrontal cortex and pavlovian conditioning: trace versus delay conditioning.</a> Behav. Neurosci. 116, 37-47 (2002).</li><li>Runyan, J. D., Moore, A. N., Dash, P. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+role+for+prefrontal+cortex+in+memory+storage+for+trace+fear+conditioning.">A role for prefrontal cortex in memory storage for trace fear conditioning.</a> J. Neurosci. 24, 1288-1295 (2004).</li><li>Gilmartin, M. R., McEchron, M. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Single+neurons+in+the+medial+prefrontal+cortex+of+the+rat+exhibit+tonic+and+phasic+coding+during+trace+fear+conditioning.">Single neurons in the medial prefrontal cortex of the rat exhibit tonic and phasic coding during trace fear conditioning.</a> Behav. Neurosci. 119, 1496-1510 (2005).</li><li>Crow, T., Xue-Bian, J. J., Siddiqi, V., Kang, Y., Neary, J. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Phosphorylation+of+mitogen-activated+protein+kinase+by+one-trial+and+multi-trial+classical+conditioning.">Phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinase by one-trial and multi-trial classical conditioning.</a> J. Neurosci. 18, 3480-3487 (1998).</li><li>Martin, K. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=MAP+kinase+translocates+into+the+nucleus+of+the+presynaptic+cell+and+is+required+for+long-term+facilitation+in+Aplysia.">MAP kinase translocates into the nucleus of the presynaptic cell and is required for long-term facilitation in Aplysia.</a> Neuron. 18, 899-912 (1997).</li><li>Crestani, F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Trace+fear+conditioning+involves+hippocampal+alpha5+GABA(A)+receptors.">Trace fear conditioning involves hippocampal alpha5 GABA(A) receptors.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 99, 8980-8985 (2002).</li><li>Crestani, F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Decreased+GABAA-receptor+clustering+results+in+enhanced+anxiety+and+a+bias+for+threat+cues.">Decreased GABAA-receptor clustering results in enhanced anxiety and a bias for threat cues.</a> Nat. Neurosci. 2, 833-839 (1999).</li><li>Moore, M. D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Trace+and+contextual+fear+conditioning+is+enhanced+in+mice+lacking+the+alpha4+subunit+of+the+GABA(A)+receptor.">Trace and contextual fear conditioning is enhanced in mice lacking the alpha4 subunit of the GABA(A) receptor.</a> Neurobiol. Learn. Mem. 93, 383-387 (2010).</li><li>Cushman, J. D., Moore, M. D., Jacobs, N. S., Olsen, R. W., Fanselow, M. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Behavioral+pharmacogenetic+analysis+on+the+role+of+the+alpha4+GABA(A)+receptor+subunit+in+the+ethanol-mediated+impairment+of+hippocampus-dependent+contextual+learning.">Behavioral pharmacogenetic analysis on the role of the alpha4 GABA(A) receptor subunit in the ethanol-mediated impairment of hippocampus-dependent contextual learning.</a> Alcohol Clin. Exp. Res. 35, 1948-1959 (2011).</li><li>Raybuck, J. D., Lattal, K. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Double+dissociation+of+amygdala+and+hippocampal+contributions+to+trace+and+delay+fear+conditioning.">Double dissociation of amygdala and hippocampal contributions to trace and delay fear conditioning.</a> PLoS ONE. 6, (2011).</li><li>Kwapis, J. L., Jarome, T. J., Schiff, J. C., Helmstetter, F. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Memory+consolidation+in+both+trace+and+delay+fear+conditioning+is+disrupted+by+intra-amygdala+infusion+of+the+protein+synthesis+inhibitor+anisomycin.">Memory consolidation in both trace and delay fear conditioning is disrupted by intra-amygdala infusion of the protein synthesis inhibitor anisomycin.</a> Learn. Mem. 18, 728-732 (2011).</li><li>Gilmartin, M. R., Kwapis, J. L., Helmstetter, F. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Trace+and+contextual+fear+conditioning+are+impaired+following+unilateral+microinjection+of+muscimol+in+the+ventral+hippocampus+or+amygdala,+but+not+the+medial+prefrontal+cortex.">Trace and contextual fear conditioning are impaired following unilateral microinjection of muscimol in the ventral hippocampus or amygdala, but not the medial prefrontal cortex.</a> Neurobiol. Learn. Mem. 97, 452-464 (2012).</li><li>Baysinger, A. N., Kent, B. A., Brown, T. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Muscarinic+receptors+in+amygdala+control+trace+fear+conditioning.">Muscarinic receptors in amygdala control trace fear conditioning.</a> PLoS ONE. 7, (2012).</li><li>Wanisch, K., Tang, J., Mederer, A., Wotjak, C. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Trace+fear+conditioning+depends+on+NMDA+receptor+activation+and+protein+synthesis+within+the+dorsal+hippocampus+of+mice.">Trace fear conditioning depends on NMDA receptor activation and protein synthesis within the dorsal hippocampus of mice.</a> Behav. Brain. 157, 63-69 (2005).</li><li>Smith, D. R., Gallagher, M., Stanton, M. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genetic+background+differences+and+nonassociative+effects+in+mouse+trace+fear+conditioning.">Genetic background differences and nonassociative effects in mouse trace fear conditioning.</a> Learn. Mem. 14, 597-605 (2007).</li><li>Rudy, J. W., O'Reilly, R. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Contextual+fear+conditioning,+conjunctive+representations,+pattern+completion,+and+the+hippocampus.">Contextual fear conditioning, conjunctive representations, pattern completion, and the hippocampus.</a> Behav. Neurosci. 113, 867-880 (1999).</li><li>Wiltgen, B. J., Sanders, M. J., Anagnostaras, S. G., Sage, J. R., Fanselow, M. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Context+fear+learning+in+the+absence+of+the+hippocampus.">Context fear learning in the absence of the hippocampus.</a> J. Neurosci. 26, 5484-5491 (2006).</li><li>Reijmers, L. G., Perkins, B. L., Matsuo, N., Mayford, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Localization+of+a+stable+neural+correlate+of+associative+memory.">Localization of a stable neural correlate of associative memory.</a> Science. 317, 1230-1233 (2007).</li><li>Huerta, P. T., Sun, L. D., Wilson, M. A., Tonegawa, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Formation+of+temporal+memory+requires+NMDA+receptors+within+CA1+pyramidal+neurons.">Formation of temporal memory requires NMDA receptors within CA1 pyramidal neurons.</a> Neuron. 25, 473-480 (2000).</li><li>Jacobs, N. S., Cushman, J. D., Fanselow, M. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+accurate+measurement+of+fear+memory+in+Pavlovian+conditioning:+Resolving+the+baseline+issue.">The accurate measurement of fear memory in Pavlovian conditioning: Resolving the baseline issue.</a> J. Neurosci. Methods. 190, 235-239 (2010).</li></ol>

There have been several studies that have elucidated the neural circuitry that underlies trace fear conditioning. Trace fear conditioning is believed to involve the CA1 of the hippocampus12-14. There is also evidence that the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) plays a large role in trace eye-blink conditioning15, and the mPFC has been found to be involved in trace fear conditioning. One study found that mPFC neurons provide sustained activity during the trace period, thus providing a structure that can...

In fear conditioning a neutral stimulus (NS) is paired with an aversive unconditioned stimulus (US). The NS is normally a tone and becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) through repeated pairings with the US. The CS can then elicit a conditioned response (CR), such as freezing, in the absence of the aversive US. A commonly used fear conditioning protocol is delay conditioning. In this protocol the onset of the NS and the US is contiguous or with some overlap in stimulus presentation. Even though delay fear conditioning is one of the most commonly used types of temporal associative conditioning, there are several other types of associative conditioning temporal arrangements: simultaneous conditioning, backward conditioning, and trace conditioning1. In trace fear conditioning there is a stimulus-free interval between the NS and the US of several seconds resulting in a &#34;trace&#34; period.
Several studies have reported deficits in trace fear conditioning when neurotoxic lesions are produced in the structures that input into the hippocampus2-5 or when pharmacological agents are used to block receptor function in the hippocampus. Lesion to the hippocampus results in deficits in trace conditioning and contextual conditioning, but does not impair delay fear conditioning8. There are several benefits to using trace fear conditioning. The fear conditioning protocol can be achieved over a three-day testing period and allows for hippocampal-dependent memory that is not spatially dependent. Trace fear conditioning can be used as a complementary test to the Morris water maze, novel object recognition test, or other maze tests in investigating hippocampal-dependent memory.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="741">
	<colgroup>
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
	</colgroup>
	<tbody>
		<tr height="22">
			<td height="22" style="height:22px;width:216px;">FreezeFrame</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">Coulbourn</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:263px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="41">
			<td height="41" style="height:41px;width:216px;">30% Isopropanol</td>
			<td style="width:143px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:263px;">Purchase 90% isopropanol and dilute it down to 30%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">70% Ethanol</td>
			<td style="width:143px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:263px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="41">
			<td height="41" style="height:41px;width:216px;">Amp-meter</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">Med-Associates</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">ENV-420</td>
			<td style="width:263px;">Windows XP, Vista, and 7 Compatible (32-bit only)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Digital Sound Level Meter</td>
			<td style="width:143px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;">33-2055</td>
			<td style="width:263px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="41">
			<td height="41" style="height:41px;width:216px;">Vanilla Extract</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">McCormick Pure Vanilla Extract</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:263px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Sticky Notes</td>
			<td style="width:143px;">Post-it</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:263px;">3X3 inch</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

trace fear conditioning in mice

In this experiment we present a technique to measure learning and memory. In the trace fear conditioning protocol presented here there are five pairings between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus. There is a 20 sec trace period that separates each conditioning trial. On the following day freezing is measured during presentation of the conditioned stimulus (CS) and trace period. On the third day there is an 8 min test to measure contextual memory. The representative results are from mice that were presented with the aversive unconditioned stimulus (shock) compared to mice that received the tone presentations without the unconditioned stimulus. Trace fear conditioning has been successfully used to detect subtle learning and memory deficits and enhancements in mice that are not found with other fear conditioning methods. This type of fear conditioning is believed to be dependent upon connections between the medial prefrontal cortex and the hippocampus. One current controversy is whether this method is believed to be amygdala-independent. Therefore, other fear conditioning testing is needed to examine amygdala-dependent learning and memory effects, such as through the delay fear conditioning.

For the representative results we present data from control C57BL/6J adult mice that received the neutral stimulus pairings with the unconditioned stimulus (shock condition) compared to mice that received the neutral stimulus but did not receive the unconditioned stimulus (no shock condition). It is important to run this condition when first setting up this behavioral test to determine whether the protocol has been performed correctly.
The data in Figure 1 represent the traini...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Trace Fear Conditioning in Mice at JoVE.com

Trace Fear Conditioning in Mice

In the following experiment we describe a protocol for trace fear conditioning in mice. This type of associative memory includes a trace period that separates the neutral stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus.

In this experiment we present a technique to measure learning and memory. In the trace fear conditioning protocol presented here there are five pairings ...

Research

JoVE Journal

Behavior

Contextual and Cued Fear Conditioning Test Using a Video Analyzing System in Mice

The contextual and cued fear conditioning test is one of the behavioral tests that assesses the ability of mice to learn and remember an association between environmental cues and aversive experiences. In this test, mice are placed into a conditioning chamber and are given parings of a conditioned stimulus (an auditory cue) and an aversive unconditioned stimulus (an electric footshock). After a delay time, the mice are exposed to the same conditioning chamber and a differently shaped chamber with presentation of the auditory cue. Freezing behavior during the test is measured as an index of fear memory. To analyze the behavior automatically, we have developed a video analyzing system using the ImageFZ application software program, which is available as a free download at http://www.mouse-phenotype.org/. Here, to show the details of our protocol, we demonstrate our procedure for the contextual and cued fear conditioning test in C57BL/6J mice using the ImageFZ system. In addition, we validated our protocol and the video analyzing system performance by comparing freezing time measured by the ImageFZ system or a photobeam-based computer measurement system with that scored by a human observer. As shown in our representative results, the data obtained by ImageFZ were similar to those analyzed by a human observer, indicating that the behavioral analysis using the ImageFZ system is highly reliable. The present movie article provides detailed information regarding the test procedures and will promote understanding of the experimental situation.

This article presents a protocol for a contextual and cued fear conditioning test using a video analyzing system to assess fear learning and memory in mice.

The contextual and cued fear conditioning test is one of the behavioral tests that assesses the ability of mice to learn and remember an association ...

Disrupting Reconsolidation of Fear Memory in Humans by a Noradrenergic &#946;-Blocker

The basic design used in our human fear-conditioning studies on disrupting reconsolidation includes testing over different phases across three consecutive days. On day 1 - the fear acquisition phase, healthy participants are exposed to a series of picture presentations. One picture stimulus (CS1+) is repeatedly paired with an aversive electric stimulus (US), resulting in the acquisition of a fear association, whereas another picture stimulus (CS2-) is never followed by an US. On day 2 - the memory reactivation phase, the participants are re-exposed to the conditioned stimulus without the US (CS1-), which typically triggers a conditioned fear response. After the memory reactivation we administer an oral dose of 40 mg of propranolol HCl, a &#946;-adrenergic receptor antagonist that indirectly targets the protein synthesis required for reconsolidation by inhibiting the noradrenaline-stimulated CREB phosphorylation. On day 3 - the test phase, the participants are again exposed to the unreinforced conditioned stimuli (CS1- and CS2-) in order to measure the fear-reducing effect of the manipulation. This retention test is followed by an extinction procedure and the presentation of situational triggers to test for the return of fear. Potentiation of the eye blink startle reflex is measured as an index for conditioned fear responding. Declarative knowledge of the fear association is measured through online US expectancy ratings during each CS presentation. In contrast to extinction learning, disrupting reconsolidation targets the original fear memory thereby preventing the return of fear. Although the clinical applications are still in their infancy, disrupting reconsolidation of fear memory seems to be a promising new technique with the prospect to persistently dampen the expression of fear memory in patients suffering from anxiety disorders and other psychiatric disorders.

Disrupting Reconsolidation of Fear Memory in Humans by a Noradrenergic &amp;#946;-Blocker

Disrupting reconsolidation is a promising approach to dampen the behavioral expression of fear memory in patients with anxiety disorders or posttraumatic stress disorder. In a series of human fear conditioning studies we showed that disrupting reconsolidation by the noradrenergic &#946;-blocker propranolol is very effective in erasing conditioned fear responding.

The basic design used in our human fear-conditioning studies on disrupting reconsolidation includes testing over different phases across three consecutive ...

Protocol for Studying Extinction of Conditioned Fear in Naturally Cycling Female Rats

Extinction of conditioned fear has been extensively studied in male rodents. Recently, there have been an increasing number of studies indicating that neural mechanisms for certain behavioral tasks and response behaviors are different in females and males. Using females in research studies can represent a challenge because of the variation of gonadal hormones during their estrous cycle. This protocol describes well-established procedures that are useful in investigating the role of estrogen in fear extinction memory consolidation in female rats. Phase of the estrous cycle and exogenous estrogen administration prior to extinction training can influence extinction recall 24 hr later. The vaginal swabbing technique for estrous phase identification described here aids the examination and manipulation of naturally cycling gonadal hormones. The use of this basic rodent model may further delineate the mechanisms by which estrogen can modulate fear extinction memory in females.

Gonadal hormones such as estrogen modulate memory formation in a number of experimental paradigms including fear extinction memory. This protocol describes a set of methods for investigating the influence of gonadal hormones specifically during extinction in naturally cycling females, including estrous cycle monitoring and exogenous estrogen administration.

Extinction of conditioned fear has been extensively studied in male rodents. Recently, there have been an increasing number of studies indicating that ...

Quantifying Social Motivation in Mice Using Operant Conditioning

In this protocol, social motivation is measured in mice through a pair of operant conditioning paradigms. To conduct the experiments, two-chambered shuttle boxes were equipped with two operant levers (left and right) and a food receptacle in one chamber, which was then divided from the second chamber by an automated guillotine door covered by a wire grid. Different stimulus mice, rotated across testing days, served as a social stimulus behind the wire grid, and were only visible following the opening of the guillotine door. Test mice were trained to lever press in order to open the door and gain access to the stimulus partner for 15 sec. The number of lever presses required to obtain the social reward progressively increased on a fixed schedule of 3. Testing sessions ended after test mice stopped lever pressing for 5 consecutive minutes. The last reinforced ratio or breakpoint can be used as a quantitative measure of social motivation. For the second paradigm, test mice were trained to discriminate between left and right lever presses in order to obtain either a food reward or the social reward. Mice were rewarded for every 3 presses of each respective lever. The number of food and social rewards can be compared as a measurement of the value placed upon each reward. The ratio of each reward type can also be compared between mouse strains and the change in this ratio can be monitored within testing sessions to measure satiation with a given reward type. Both of these operant conditioning paradigms are highly useful for the quantification of social motivation in mouse models of autism and other disorders of social behavior.

This article describes a new protocol for the quantitative measurement of social motivation in mice using operant conditioning for a social reward. The protocol is useful for the measurement of social motivation in mouse models of autism and other disorders of social behavior.

In this protocol, social motivation is measured in mice through a pair of operant conditioning paradigms. To conduct the experiments, two-chambered ...

Whisker-signaled Eyeblink Classical Conditioning in Head-fixed Mice

Eyeblink conditioning is a common paradigm for investigating the neural mechanisms underlying learning and memory. To better utilize the extensive repertoire of scientific techniques available to study learning and memory at the cellular level, it is ideal to have a stable cranial platform. Because mice do not readily tolerate restraint, they are usually trained while moving about freely in a chamber. Conditioned stimulus (CS) and unconditioned stimulus (US) information are delivered and eyeblink responses recorded via a tether connected to the mouse's head. In the head-fixed apparatus presented here, mice are allowed to run as they desire while their heads are secured to facilitate experimentation. Reliable conditioning of the eyeblink response is obtained with this training apparatus, which allows for the delivery of whisker stimulation as the CS, a periorbital electrical shock as the US, and analysis of electromyographic (EMG) activity from the eyelid to detect blink responses.

The preparation presented here for whisker-signaled eyeblink conditioning in head-fixed mice precisely stimulates specific whiskers while allowing mice to ambulate on a cylindrical treadmill. A whisker stimulation conditioned stimulus (CS) paired with a periorbital shock unconditioned stimulus (US) results in reliable associative learning on this apparatus.

Eyeblink conditioning is a common paradigm for investigating the neural mechanisms underlying learning and memory. To better utilize the extensive ...

Reducing State Anxiety Using Working Memory Maintenance

The purpose of this protocol is to explain how to examine the relationship between working memory processes and anxiety by combining the Sternberg Working Memory (WM) and the threat of shock paradigms. In the Sternberg WM paradigm, subjects are required to maintain a series of letters in the WM for a brief interval and respond by identifying whether the position of a given letter in the series matches a numerical prompt. In the threat of shock paradigm, subjects are exposed to alternating blocks where they are either at risk of receiving unpredictable presentations of a mild electric shock or are safe from the shock. Anxiety is probed throughout the safe and threat blocks using the acoustic startle reflex, which is potentiated under threat (Anxiety-Potentiated Startle (APS)). By conducting the Sternberg WM paradigm during the threat of shock and probing the startle response during either the WM maintenance interval or the intertrial interval, it is possible to determine the effect of WM maintenance on APS.

This protocol demonstrates how to measure anxiety-potentiated startle during the Sternberg Working Memory paradigm.

The purpose of this protocol is to explain how to examine the relationship between working memory processes and anxiety by combining the Sternberg Working ...

Classical Short-Delay Eyeblink Conditioning in One-Year-Old Children

Classical eyeblink conditioning (EBC) refers to the learned association between a conditioned stimulus (an auditory tone) and an unconditioned stimulus (a puff of air to the cornea). Eyeblink conditioning is often used experimentally to detect abnormalities in cerebellar-dependent learning and memory that underlies this type of associative learning. While experiments in adults and older children are relatively simple to administer using commercial equipment, eyeblink conditioning in infants is more challenging due to their poor compliance, which makes correct positioning of the equipment difficult. To achieve conditioning in one-year-old infants, a custom-made or an adapted commercial system can be used to deliver the air puff to the infant's cornea. The main challenge lies in successfully detecting and classifying the behavioral responses. We report that automated blink detection methods are unreliable in this population, and that conditioning experiments should be analyzed using frame-by-frame analysis of supplementary video camera recordings. This method can be applied to study developmental changes in eyeblink conditioning and to examine whether this paradigm can detect children with neurological disorders.

This protocol describes an eyeblink conditioning paradigm appropriate for experiments with one-year-old infants. Commercial or custom-made equipment can be used to deliver the stimuli, and data collection and analysis should be performed on the video recordings.

Classical eyeblink conditioning (EBC) refers to the learned association between a conditioned stimulus (an auditory tone) and an unconditioned stimulus (a ...

Stress-Enhanced Fear Learning, a Robust Rodent Model of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

Fear behaviors are important for survival, but disproportionately high levels of fear can increase the vulnerability for developing psychiatric disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). To understand the biological mechanisms of fear dysregulation in PTSD, it is important to start with a valid animal model of the disorder. This protocol describes the methodology required to conduct stress-enhanced fear learning (SEFL) experiments, a preclinical model of PTSD, in both rats and mice. SEFL was developed to recapitulate critical aspects of PTSD, including long-term sensitization of fear learning caused by an acute stressor. SEFL uses aspects of Pavlovian fear conditioning but produces a distinct and robust sensitized fear response far greater than normal conditional fear responses. The trauma procedure involves placing a rodent in a conditioning chamber and administering 15 unsignaled shocks randomly distributed over 90 minutes (for rat experiments; for mouse experiments, 10 unsignaled shocks randomly distributed over 60 minutes are used). On day 2, rodents are placed in a novel conditioning context where they receive a single shock; then, on day 3 they are placed back in the same context as on day 2 and tested for changes in freezing levels. Rodents that previously received the trauma display enhanced levels of freezing on the test day compared to those that received no shocks on the first day. Thus, with this model, a single highly stressful experience (the trauma) produces extreme fear of the stimuli associated with the traumatic event.

Here we describe the detailed methodology required to conduct stress-enhanced fear learning (SEFL) experiments, a preclinical model of post-traumatic stress disorder, in both rats and mice. The model utilizes aspects of Pavlovian fear conditioning and freezing as an index of enhanced fear in rodents.

Fear behaviors are important for survival, but disproportionately high levels of fear can increase the vulnerability for developing psychiatric disorders ...

Visual Classical Conditioning in Wood Ants

Several species of insects have become model systems for studying learning and memory formation. Although many studies focus on freely moving animals, studies implementing classical conditioning paradigms with harnessed insects have been important for investigating the exact cues that individuals learn and the neural mechanisms underlying learning and memory formation. Here we present a protocol for evoking visual associative learning in wood ants through classical conditioning. In this paradigm, ants are harnessed and presented with a visual cue (a blue cardboard), the conditional stimulus (CS), paired with an appetitive sugar reward, the unconditional stimulus (US). Ants perform a Maxilla-Labium Extension Reflex (MaLER), the unconditional response (UR), which can be used as a readout for learning. Training consists of 10 trials, separated by a 5-minute intertrial interval (ITI). Ants are also tested for memory retention 10 minutes or 1 hour after training. This protocol has the potential to allow researchers to analyze, in a precise and controlled manner, the details of visual memory formation and the neural basis of learning and memory formation in wood ants.

We present a protocol for the classical conditioning of harnessed ants that permits researchers to study visual learning and memory formation at a level of analysis not possible with freely moving individuals.

Several species of insects have become model systems for studying learning and memory formation. Although many studies focus on freely moving animals, ...

Fear Incubation Using an Extended Fear-Conditioning Protocol for Rats

Emotional memory has been primarily studied with fear-conditioning paradigms. Fear conditioning is a form of learning through which individuals learn the relationships between aversive events and otherwise neutral stimuli. The most-widely utilized procedures for studying emotional memories entail fear conditioning in rats. In these tasks, the unconditioned stimulus (US) is a footshock presented once or several times across single or several sessions, and the conditioned response (CR) is freezing. In a version of these procedures, called cued fear conditioning, a tone (conditioned stimulus, CS) is paired with footshocks (US) during the training phase. During the first test, animals are exposed to the same context in which training took place, and freezing responses are tested in the absence of footshocks and tones (i.e., a context test). During the second test, freezing is measured when the context is changed (e.g., by manipulating the smell and walls of the experimental chamber) and the tone is presented in the absence of footshocks (i.e., a cue test). Most cued fear conditioning procedures entail few tone-shock pairings (e.g., 1-3 trials in a single session). There is a growing interest in less common versions involving an extensive number of pairings (i.e., overtraining) related to the long-lasting effect called fear incubation (i.e., fear responses increase over time without further exposure to aversive events or conditioned stimuli). Extended fear-conditioning tasks have been key to the understanding of fear incubation&#8217;s behavioral and neurobiological aspects, including its relationship with other psychological phenomena (e.g., post-traumatic stress disorder). Here, we describe an extended fear-conditioning protocol that produces overtraining and fear incubation in rats. This protocol entails a single training session with 25 tone-shock pairings (i.e., overtraining) and a comparison of conditioned freezing responses during context and cue tests 48 h (short-term) and 6 weeks (long-term) after training.

We describe an extended fear-conditioning protocol that produces overtraining and fear incubation in rats. This protocol entails a single training session with 25 tone-shock pairings (i.e., overtraining) and a comparison of conditioned freezing responses during context and cue tests 48 h (short-term) and 6 weeks (long-term) after training.

Emotional memory has been primarily studied with fear-conditioning paradigms. Fear conditioning is a form of learning through which individuals learn the ...