자금 조달 :이 작품은 재단 Bertarelli 보조금 (DJL), MED-EL 부여 (DJL), 보건 보조금 DC01089의 국립 연구소 (MCB)에 의해 지원되었다.

참고 : 모든 실험 절차는 보건 서비스 동물 애호 관리에 대한 정책 및 실험 동물의 사용을 포함하여 국가 동물 관리 지침을 따르 매사추세츠 눈의 동물 관리 및 사용위원회와 귀 의무실과 하버드 의과 대학,에 따라 수행된다 ILAR 가이드 및 동물 복지 법. 실험 절차는 왼쪽 DCN의 세부 노출 아래에 나열된. 생존 수술을 수행하는 동안 멸균 악기를 사용합니다. 1 차 개두술 등쪽 달팽이 핵 노출 <ol><li> 마취 <ol><li> 복강 내 투여를 통해 자일 라진 (xylazine) 20 ㎎ / ㎏과 케타민 100 ㎎ / ㎏ 18-24 g의 무게 8~12주, 세 마우스를, 마취. 모니터링 심박수, 호흡 수,뿐만 아니라 발가락 핀치 철수 반사에 의한 적절한 마취를 확인합니다. 눈에 장소 수의사 연고 마취 동안 건조를 방지합니다. 일단 적절하게 마취, 면도 머리 위에 놓인 t그는 수술 부위에 접근이 수월를 제공하기 위해 두피. </li></ol></li><li> 외과 위치 <ol><li> 주둥이 클램프로 고정 작은 동물 정위 홀더에 안전하게 마우스를 놓습니다. </li><li> 주둥이 클램프가 완전히 마우스의 머리를 고정하는 적절한 호흡하지만 꽉 충분히 허용 할 정도로 느슨한 있는지 확인하십시오. 마우스 머리가 느슨한 경우, 동물 절차의 개두술 부분에서 헤드 홀더에서 떨어질 가능성이있다. </li><li> 심장 박동 모니터링 할 수 표준 방식에서 청성 뇌간 이​​식 전극을 배치합니다. 호흡 비율은 시각화하여 모니터링해야합니다. 정상적인 심장 박동과 호흡이 마우스의 연령에 따라 달라질 수 있습니다. </li><li> homeothermic 가열 담요에 배치를 통해 온도계는 배치되고 euthermia이 보장된다. </li></ol></li><li> 피부 절개하고 두개골의 interparietal과 뒤통수 뼈의 노출 <ol><li> microsc에서OPE, 피부를 통해 수직 절개가 직접 날개 사이의 중간 선에서 시작하고, 후두부의 꼬리 부분까지 연장합니다. 정중선 피부 절개를 따라 횡 방향으로 피부를 변위. 두개골의 왼쪽 후방 측면을 덮고있는 근육을 시각화. </li><li> 메스 홍채 가위와 각각의 뼈에 근육 첨부 파일의 이단에 의해 근육 왼쪽 정수리, interparietal 위에 놓인, 두개골의 후두 뼈를 제거합니다. 컷 근육의 가장자리를 따라 출혈의 작은 정도를 관찰한다. 10 ~ 15 초 동안 면봉으로 부드럽게 압력이 최소화. </li></ol></li><li> 개두술을 덮는 인공 와우 핵 <ol><li> 시상 및 람다 봉합 라인 (그림 1, 왼쪽 패널)을 포함하여 관련 봉합 라인을 확인합니다. </li><li> rongeurs를 사용하여 람다 봉합 라인에 중간 선 왼쪽 interparietal 뼈를 통해 개두술, ~ 2mm의 꼬리를합니다. 이 지역은 DCN 위에 놓인다. </li><li> 따라와g의 개두술은 소뇌 위에 놓여 두라의 얇은 층을 관찰합니다. 메스 블레이드를 사용하여 경질을 제거합니다. (그림 1, 가운데 패널). 참고 : 경질의 제거는 약간의 출혈이 발생할 수 있습니다. 경질을 제거 메스 블레이드를 사용하는이 프로세스는 뇌간 표면 및 DCN 모호한 식별 할 풀, 소뇌 흡입 동안 혈액 손실의 양을 감소시키기위한 것이다. 마우스의 총 혈액량은 15 %보다&gt; ~ 1.5 ml를 초과하지 않아야합니다. 출혈이 금액을 초과하면, 마우스는 유체 보충과 함께 제공되어야한다. </li><li> 면 팁 어플리케이터 소뇌를 오버레이 응고 된 혈액을 제거합니다. 선택적으로, 부드럽게 혈액을 혈액을 멀리 취소 소뇌에 치과 지점을 사용하여 식염수 물방울. </li></ol></li><li> 소뇌 포부 <ol><li> DCN이 힘을 될 때까지 5 프랑스어 흡입을 사용하면, DCN 위에 놓인 왼쪽 소뇌의 측면 - 대부분의 부분을 대기음연간 (그림 1, 오른쪽 패널). 왼쪽 소뇌의 약 1/4 ~ 1/3를 제거합니다. DCN에 인접한 주요 랜드 마크는 우수한 반규관의 팽대부입니다. 참고 : 소뇌의 포부는 프로토콜의 핵심 단계이다. 이 출혈의 원인이됩니다이 같은 흡입의 다중 패스와 함께 하나의 시도에서 발생하지 않을 경우 소뇌의 감독 흡입은 가장 성공적으로 수행된다. 흡입을 돕기 위해, 소뇌의 표면에 약간 원위 것이다 CN의 예상 깊이 현미경의 초점면을 설정한다. CN에 초점면을 설정하면 시각화를 개선하고 선명한 이미지를 보장합니다. </li><li> DCN에 따라 흡입, 더 출혈, 뇌척수액 (CSF) 빌드 업, 그리고 소뇌 변위가 예상된다. 혈액 응고를 방지하기 위해 신속 개두술에 멸균 생리 식염수를 주입 시키 0.5 CC. 치과 점과 흡입과 부드러운 dabbing의 조합은 할 수있다DCN의 직접 시각화를위한 경로를 멀리 취소하는 데 사용됩니다. 직접 DCN의 표면에 접촉하지 마십시오. </li></ol></li></ol> 바이러스 매개 유전자 전달 및 외과 복구를위한 2. 압력 미세 주입 <ol><li> DCN은 상부의 혈액과 뇌척수액의 무료이며 명확하게 볼 수 있습니다 후 2 분 동안 10 μL 해밀턴 주사기를 사용하여 DCN에 압력 microinjections을합니다. </li><li> 팁은 더 이상 DCN의 표면 아래에 보일 때까지 미세 조작기로 바늘을 도입하지 않는다. </li><li> 최적의 성능을 위해, 외상을 최소화하고 얇은 DCN 내 주입 볼륨을, 지역화, 45 °로, 얕은 경사와 등을 33 또는 34 게이지 바늘 (34 게이지 바늘 기밀 주사기를 사용)을 사용하는 얕은 뇌간 구조 (&lt;300 μm의 두께). 참고 : 다른 미세 주입 장비가 활용 기초 할 수있다. 이상적으로, 주사 기기는 약간의 벤 있도록 유연해야D는 경우 직접 D​​CN을 대상으로 할 필요가 있었다. 마우스 인해 호흡에 절차 전반에 걸쳐 약간 이동하면서 또한, 악기는 운동의 소량을 견딜 수 있도록 충분히 견고해야한다. </li></ol> 3. 수술 복구 <ol><li> 주사 직후 피부를 다시 근사 및 마우스 표준 복구 절차 당 복구 할 수있다. 남은 소뇌와 흉터 조직은 소뇌의 흡인에 의한 공동으로 채울 것입니다. 충분한 의식이 흉골 드러 누움을 유지하기 위해 회복 될 때까지 지속적으로 동물을 모니터링 할 수 있습니다. 심박수, 호흡 수,뿐만 아니라 공급하는 능력을 모니터한다. 참고 : 완전히 회복 될 때까지 아니 동물 수술을 한 다른 동물 케이지에 반환됩니다. </li><li> 마우스는 수술 후 원에서 도보로 시작하는 경우가 가능성이 힘든 시간 공급을하는 것처럼 (&lt;사례 5 %), 피부 절개의 폐쇄 후 일반적으로 2-4 시간은, 바로, 마우스를 희생. 티그의 부작용으로 인해 소뇌 흡인하기 쉽다. 동물은 수술 후 통증에 대해 모니터링되어야하고, 적절한 마약 제도적 표준을 기반으로 동물의 편안함을 보장하기 위해 부여해야합니다. 항생제는 필요 감염의 경우 증거 할 수 있습니다. </li></ol> 4. 차 개두술 달팽이 핵 노출 <ol><li> 치유와 바이러스 매개 유전자 전달 배양 2-4 주 후, 이전에 주입 마우스 단계를 반복 1.1-1.5 최적의 배양 시간이 전송 유전자의 종류에 따라 다릅니다 다시 마취. </li><li> 핀셋, 메스 및 rongeurs의 조합에 의해 개두술 사이트를 통해 흉터 조직을 제거합니다. </li><li> 개두술을 시각화 한 후, DCN을 덮는 소뇌 및 흉터 조직을 나머지의 조합을 식별한다. 위에있는 소뇌 / (이전 소뇌의 열망과 유사) 흉터 조직을 흡인하기 위해 5 프랑스어 흡입을 사용합니다. </li><li> 흡인 후, 추가 출혈, 뇌척수액 B 기대uild 업 및 소뇌의 나머지 비트. 빠르게 혈액 응고를 방지하기 위해 식염수에 개두술을 소개한다. DCN의 직접 시각화에 대한 경로를 취소 부드러운 치과 점 dabbing 및 흡입의 조합을 사용합니다. </li><li> DCN의 표면을 관찰한다. DCN 이제 액세스 가능한 optogenetics 기반 생리학 실험을 수행합니다. optogenetics 기반 실험을 구동하기 위해, 광섬유 (도 2)와, 예를 들면 광 자극을 소개. </li></ol> 5. 조직학 <ol><li> 실험의 결론에 따라, 마취제의 과다 복용으로 마우스를 안락사. 4 % 파라 포름 알데히드이어서 생리 식염수로 마우스를 관류. </li><li> 2 시간의 두개골 및 사후 수정에서 뇌간의 압축을 풉니 다. 24 ~ 48 시간 동안 30 % 자당의 뇌간을 Cryoprotect. 제 60 ㎛의 섹션을 사용하여 표준 저온 유지 장치를 이용 뇌간. </li></ol>

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H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optogenetic+stimulation+of+the+auditory+pathway.">Optogenetic stimulation of the auditory pathway.</a> J Clin Invest. 124 (3), 1114-1129 (2014).</li><li>Adamantidis, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optogenetic+interrogation+of+dopaminergic+modulation+of+the+multiple+phases+of+reward-seeking+behavior.">Optogenetic interrogation of dopaminergic modulation of the multiple phases of reward-seeking behavior.</a> J Neurosci. 30 (31), 10829-10835 (2011).</li><li>Kim, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optogenetic+mimicry+of+the+transient+activation+of+dopamine+neurons+by+natural+reward+is+sufficient+for+operant+reinforcement.">Optogenetic mimicry of the transient activation of dopamine neurons by natural reward is sufficient for operant reinforcement.</a> PloS One. 7 (4), e33612 (2012).</li><li>Britt, J., Bonci, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optogenetic+interrogations+of+the+neural+circuits+underlying+addiction.">Optogenetic interrogations of the neural circuits underlying addiction.</a> Curr Opin Neurobiol. 23 (4), 539-545 (2013).</li><li>Abbott, S., Coates, M., Stornetta, R., Guyenet, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optogenetic+stimulation+of+c1+and+retrotrapezoid+nucleus+neurons+causes+sleep+state-dependent+cardiorespiratory+stimulation+and+arousal+in+rats.">Optogenetic stimulation of c1 and retrotrapezoid nucleus neurons causes sleep state-dependent cardiorespiratory stimulation and arousal in rats.</a> Hypertension. 61 (4), 835-841 (2013).</li><li>Carter, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tuning+arousal+with+optogenetic+modulation+of+locus+coeruleus+neurons.">Tuning arousal with optogenetic modulation of locus coeruleus neurons.</a> Nat Neurosci. 13 (12), 1526-1533 (2010).</li><li>Darrow, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optogenetic+control+of+central+auditory+neurons.">Optogenetic control of central auditory neurons.</a> Assoc. 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(695), (2012).</li><li>Shimano, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Assessment+of+the+AAV-mediated+expression+of+channelrhodopsin-2+and+halorhodopsin+in+brainstem+neurons+mediating+auditory+signaling.">Assessment of the AAV-mediated expression of channelrhodopsin-2 and halorhodopsin in brainstem neurons mediating auditory signaling.</a> Brain Res. 1511, 138-152 (2013).</li><li>Doucet, J., Ryugo, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Projections+from+the+ventral+cochlear+nucleus+to+the+dorsal+cochlear+nucleus+in+rats.">Projections from the ventral cochlear nucleus to the dorsal cochlear nucleus in rats.</a> J Comp Neurol. 385, 245-264 (1997).</li><li>Brown, M., Drottar, M., Benson, T., Darrow, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Commissural+axons+of+the+mouse+cochlear+nucleus.">Commissural axons of the mouse cochlear nucleus.</a> J Comp Neurol. 521, 1683-1696 (2013).</li><li>Verma, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Auditory+responses+to+electric+and+infrared+neural+stimulation+of+the+rat+cochlear+nucleus.">Auditory responses to electric and infrared neural stimulation of the rat cochlear nucleus.</a> Hear Res. 310, 69-75 (2014).</li><li>Taberner, A. M., Liberman, M. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Response+properties+of+single+auditory+nerve+fibers+in+the+mouse.">Response properties of single auditory nerve fibers in the mouse.</a> J Neurophysiol. 93 (1), 557-569 (2005).</li><li>Rolls, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optogenetic+disruption+of+sleep+continuity+impairs+memory+consolidation.">Optogenetic disruption of sleep continuity impairs memory consolidation.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci. 108 (32), 13305-13310 (2011).</li><li>Huff, M., Miller, R., Deisseroth, K., Moorman, D., LaLumiere, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Posttraining+optogenetic+manipulations+of+basolateral+amygdala+activity+modulate+consolidation+of+inhibitory+avoidance+memory+in+rats.">Posttraining optogenetic manipulations of basolateral amygdala activity modulate consolidation of inhibitory avoidance memory in rats.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci. 110 (9), 3597-3602 (2013).</li><li>Stortkuhl, K., Fiala, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Smell+of+Blue+Light:+A+New+Approach+toward+Understanding+an+Olfactory+Neuronal+Network.">The Smell of Blue Light: A New Approach toward Understanding an Olfactory Neuronal Network.</a> Front Neurosci. 5 (72), (2011).</li><li>Hira, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transcranial+optogenetic+stimulation+for+functional+mapping+of+the+motor+cortex.">Transcranial optogenetic stimulation for functional mapping of the motor cortex.</a> J Neurosci Methods. 179 (2), 258-263 (2009).</li><li>Ayling, O., Harrison, T., Boyd, J., Foroshkov, A., Murphy, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Automated+light-based+mapping+of+motor+cortex+by+photoactivation+of+channelrhodopsin-2+transgenic+mice.">Automated light-based mapping of motor cortex by photoactivation of channelrhodopsin-2 transgenic mice.</a> Nat Methods. 6 (3), 219-224 (2009).</li><li>Boyden, E., Zhang, F., Bamberg, E., Nagel, G., Deisseroth, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Millisecond-timescale,+genetically+targeted+optical+control+of+neural+activity.">Millisecond-timescale, genetically targeted optical control of neural activity.</a> Nat. Neurosci. 8, 1263-1268 (2005).</li></ol>

저자가 공개하는 게 없다.

이 논문은 중앙 청각 시스템의 조작 생쥐 모델에서 DCN의 직접 시각화 기술을 설명합니다. 직접 시각화의 설명 방식은 정위 적 방법을 주요 대안에 비해 상당한 장점을 제공합니다. 정위 방법은 직접 시각화 여유가없는 반면, 주로, DCN의 직접 시각화, 뇌간의 사이트를 즉시 확인 할 수 있습니다. 바이러스 - 매개 유전자 전달의 경우에서와 같이, 인큐베이션 기간을 필요로 장기간 실험에서, 주입 대?...

Virus-mediated gene transfer to reverse hearing loss has largely been focused on the peripheral auditory system.1 Targeting the cochlea, investigators have examined a host of delivery routes, including osmotic minipump infusion2, vector-transgene complex-soaked Gelfoam&#174;2 or gelatin sponge3, direct microinjection4; numerous gene transfer vectors, including adeno-associated viral vectors5,6, lentiviral vectors7, and cationic liposomes2; and the dissemination of gene transfer vectors beyond the target tissue2. Most recently, adeno-associated virus (AAV)-1 has been introduced in the cochlea in order to treat deafness in mice due to loss of vesicular glutamate transporter-3.8 Further, the application of optogenetics in peripheral auditory system has recently been described.9
Few studies, however, have examined gene transfer to the central auditory system. The dorsal cochlear nucleus (DCN) of the brainstem contain second order neurons of the auditory pathway. While gene transfer techniques in the cochlear nucleus (CN) may be utilized for a host of investigations, gene transfer of opsins, light-sensitive proteins, to the DCN may also be utilized to enable optogenetics-based experimental techniques. Following virus-mediated gene transfer delivery of an opsin, such as channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2), the neurons of the DCN becomes sensitive to light stimuli. Optogenetic gene transfer has been previously attempted in several brainstem regions, including the rat retrotrapezoid nucleus, mouse locus coeruleus, monkey superior colliculus, and mouse ventral tegmental area.10-14
Recently, investigators have examined the use of optogenetics in the DCN.15,16 The DCN is the location of placement of auditory brainstem implants in humans, making it an attractive part of the auditory system to study for translational studies on auditory neuroprostheses. However, given the location of the DCN, surgical exposure is challenging. The technique described herein provides a protocol for maximal exposure of the DCN via posterior fossa approach to enable viral vector gene transfer and optogenetics-based experiments in a murine model. Previous studies used stereotactic microinjection into the DCN with channelrhodopsin-2.16 Stereotaxic injections, however, are potentially less accurate than injections made by direct visualization, especially in a nucleus as small and deep along the brainstem as the DCN. Transgenic mice expressing tissue specific proteins in the CN are also an attractive option and would obviate the need for gene transfer. Our protocol for exposure of the DCN would also work in transgenic mice as the DCN would need to be directly exposed for optical stimulation. This technique for surgical exposure of the DCN is adapted from previous protocols involving recordings from the auditory nerve and cochlear nucleus in mice and rat models.15,17-20
The overall goal of the protocol is to provide direct exposure to the CN to allow for gene transfer techniques. More specifically, the approach is compatible with both acute and survival surgery and the preparation can be repeated in the same animal for subsequent neurophysiological testing. The direct exposure of the DCN protocol has implications for optogenetics- and virus-mediated gene transfer-based experimentation in other nuclei of the brainstem.

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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:197px;">Stereotaxic holder</td>
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			<td height="46" rowspan="2" style="height:46px;width:197px;">Bone rongeur</td>
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			<td height="51" rowspan="2" style="height:52px;width:197px;">10 &#181;l Hamilton syringe</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:227px;">Hamilton&#160;</td>
			<td rowspan="2">7633-01</td>
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			<td height="42" rowspan="2" style="height:42px;width:197px;">34 gauge, needle</td>
			<td rowspan="2" style="width:227px;">Hamilton&#160;</td>
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			<td>Fine Surgical Tools</td>
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</table>

direct visualization of the murine dorsal cochlear nucleus for optogenetic stimulation of the auditory pathway

체포 또는 청력 손실을 반대하는 바이러스 매개 유전자 전달의 사용에 대한 조사는 크게 말초 청각 시스템에 이관되었다. 연구는 거의 중앙 청각 시스템에 유전자 전달을 조사 하였다. 청각 경로의 2 차 뉴런을 포함 뇌간의 등쪽 달팽이관 핵 (DCN)를, 유전자 전달을위한 잠재적 인 위치이다. 이 프로토콜에서 후두와 접근법을 통해 쥐의 DCN의 직접적이고 최대 노출에 대한 기술은 증명된다. 이 방법은 하나 급성 또는 생존 수술을 할 수 있습니다. DCN의 직접적인 시각화에 이어, 실험 호스트는 청색 레이저에 연결된 광 파이버에 의한 인공 핵 및 후속 자극으로 opsins의 주입을 포함 할 수있다. 이러한 전기 자극과 신경 인젝터 트레이싱과 같은 다른 신경 생리학 실험도 가능하다. visualiza의 수준기 및 자극 지속 기간은 달성 실험 광범위한 적용이 접근법 만든다.

부분 소뇌 흡입은 코 클리어 핵에 대한 액세스를 보여줍니다 두개골을 덮는 피부와 근육이 같은 관상과 람다 봉합 선으로, 두개골 표면 랜드 마크를 제거한 후, 개두술의 대략적인 현지화를 보여줍니다. rongeurs와 개두술에 따라, 소뇌가 보여집니다. 소뇌의 작은 부분을주의 깊게 흡입 후 주입 할 수있는 CN, (그림 1)의 시각화를 보여줍니다. <p class="jove_con...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Direct Visualization of the Murine Dorsal Cochlear Nucleus for Optogenetic Stimulation of the Auditory Pathway at JoVE.com

Direct Visualization of the Murine Dorsal Cochlear Nucleus for Optogenetic Stimulation of the Auditory Pathway

The goal of this protocol is to outline a surgical approach to provide direct access to the dorsal cochlear nucleus in a murine model.

청각 통로의 Optogenetic 자극에 대한 쥐의 등쪽 달팽이 핵의 직접 시각화

Investigation into the use of virus-mediated gene transfer to arrest or reverse hearing loss has largely been relegated to the peripheral auditory system. ...

direct-visualization-murine-dorsal-cochlear-nucleus-for-optogenetic

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9.1K 조회수.  Harvard Medical School. The goal of this protocol is to outline a surgical approach to provide direct access to the dorsal cochlear nucleus in a murine model. 

비디오: Direct Visualization of the Murine Dorsal Cochlear Nucleus for Optogenetic Stimulation of the Auditory Pathway

TMS: Using the Theta-Burst Protocol to Explore Mechanism of Plasticity in Individuals with Fragile X Syndrome and Autism

Fragile X Syndrome (FXS), also known as Martin-Bell Syndrome, is a genetic abnormality found on the X chromosome.1,2 Individuals suffering from FXS display abnormalities in the expression of FMR1 - a protein required for typical, healthy neural development.3 Recent data has suggested that the loss of this protein can cause the cortex to be hyperexcitable thereby affecting overall patterns of neural plasticity.4,5
In addition, Fragile X shows a strong comorbidity with autism: in fact, 30% of children with FXS are diagnosed with autism, and 2 - 5% of autistic children suffer from FXS.6
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (a non-invasive neurostimulatory and neuromodulatory technique that can transiently or lastingly modulate cortical excitability via the application of localized magnetic field pulses 7,8) represents a unique method of exploring plasticity and the manifestations of FXS within affected individuals. More specifically, Theta-Burst Stimulation (TBS), a specific stimulatory protocol shown to modulate cortical plasticity for a duration up to 30 minutes after stimulation cessation in healthy populations, has already proven an efficacious tool in the exploration of abnormal plasticity.9,10 
Recent studies have shown the effects of TBS last considerably longer in individuals on the autistic spectrum - up to 90 minutes.11 This extended effect-duration suggests an underlying abnormality in the brain's natural plasticity state in autistic individuals - similar to the hyperexcitability induced by Fragile X Syndrome.
In this experiment, utilizing single-pulse motor-evoked potentials (MEPs) as our benchmark, we will explore the effects of both intermittent and continuous TBS on cortical plasticity in individuals suffering from FXS and individuals on the Autistic Spectrum.

In this article, we examine the effects of Theta-Burst TMS stimulation on cortical plasticity in individuals suffering from Fragile X syndrome and individuals on the autistic spectrum.

TMS : 연약한 X 증후군 및 자폐증과 개인의 소성의 Mechasnism를 탐험하는 세타 - 버스트 프로토콜을 사용하여

Fragile X Syndrome (FXS), also known as Martin-Bell Syndrome, is a genetic abnormality found on the X chromosome.1,2 Individuals suffering from FXS ...

연구

신경과학

The NeuroStar TMS Device: Conducting the FDA Approved Protocol for Treatment of Depression

The Neuronetics NeuroStar Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) System is a class II medical device that produces brief duration, pulsed magnetic fields. These rapidly alternating fields induce electrical currents within localized, targeted regions of the cortex which are associated with various physiological and functional brain changes.1,2,3
In 2007, O'Reardon et al., utilizing the NeuroStar device, published the results of an industry-sponsored, multisite, randomized, sham-stimulation controlled clinical trial in which 301 patients with major depression, who had previously failed to respond to at least one adequate antidepressant treatment trial, underwent either active or sham TMS over the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). The patients, who were medication-free at the time of the study, received TMS five times per week over 4-6 weeks.4
The results demonstrated that a sub-population of patients (those who were relatively less resistant to medication, having failed not more than two good pharmacologic trials) showed a statistically significant improvement on the Montgomery-Asberg Depression Scale (MADRS), the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HAMD), and various other outcome measures. In October 2008, supported by these and other similar results5,6,7, Neuronetics obtained the first and only Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval for the clinical treatment of a specific form of medication-refractory depression using a TMS Therapy device (FDA approval K061053).
In this paper, we will explore the specified FDA approved NeuroStar depression treatment protocol (to be administered only under prescription and by a licensed medical profession in either an in- or outpatient setting).

In this article, we examine the methodology and considerations relevant to the FDA approved depression treatment protocol using the Neuronetics NeuroStar TMS device.

NeuroStar TMS 장치 : FDA를 실시는 우울증 치료 프로토콜을 승인

The Neuronetics NeuroStar Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) System is a class II medical device that produces brief duration, pulsed magnetic ...

Electrode Positioning and Montage in Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a technique that has been intensively investigated in the past decade as this method offers a non-invasive and safe alternative to change cortical excitability2. The effects of one session of tDCS can last for several minutes, and its effects depend on polarity of stimulation, such as that cathodal stimulation induces a decrease in cortical excitability, and anodal stimulation induces an increase in cortical excitability that may last beyond the duration of stimulation6. These effects have been explored in cognitive neuroscience and also clinically in a variety of neuropsychiatric disorders &#x2013; especially when applied over several consecutive sessions4. One area that has been attracting attention of neuroscientists and clinicians is the use of tDCS for modulation of pain-related neural networks3,5. Modulation of two main cortical areas in pain research has been explored: primary motor cortex and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex7. Due to the critical role of electrode montage, in this article, we show different alternatives for electrode placement for tDCS clinical trials on pain; discussing advantages and disadvantages of each method of stimulation.

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is an established technique to modulate cortical excitability1,2. It has been used as an investigative tool in neuroscience due to its effects on cortical plasticity, easy operation, and safe profile. One area that tDCS has been showing encouraging results is pain alleviation 3-5.

Transcranial 직접 전류 자극의 전극 위치와 몬티지

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a technique that has been intensively investigated in the past decade as this method offers a ...

Visualization of Proprioceptors in Drosophila Larvae and Pupae

Proprioception is the ability to sense the motion, or position, of body parts by responding to stimuli arising within the body. In fruitflies and other insects proprioception is provided by specialized sensory organs termed chordotonal organs (ChOs) 2. Like many other organs in Drosophila, ChOs develop twice during the life cycle of the fly. First, the larval ChOs develop during embryogenesis. Then, the adult ChOs start to develop in the larval imaginal discs and continue to differentiate during metamorphosis.
The development of larval ChOs during embryogenesis has been studied extensively 10,11,13,15,16. The centerpiece of each ChO is a sensory unit composed of a neuron and a scolopale cell. The sensory unit is stretched between two types of accessory cells that attach to the cuticle via specialized epidermal attachment cells 1,9,14. When a fly larva moves, the relative displacement of the epidermal attachment cells leads to stretching of the sensory unit and consequent opening of specific transient receptor potential vanilloid (TRPV) channels at the outer segment of the dendrite 8,12. The elicited signal is then transferred to the locomotor central pattern generator circuit in the central nervous system.
Multiple ChOs have been described in the adult fly 7. These are located near the joints of the adult fly appendages (legs, wings and halters) and in the thorax and abdomen. In addition, several hundreds of ChOs collectively form the Johnston's organ in the adult antenna that transduce acoustic to mechanical energy 3,5,17,4.
In contrast to the extensive knowledge about the development of ChOs in embryonic stages, very little is known about the morphology of these organs during larval stages. Moreover, with the exception of femoral ChOs 18 and Johnston's organ, our knowledge about the development and structure of ChOs in the adult fly is very fragmentary.
Here we describe a method for staining and visualizing ChOs in third instar larvae and pupae. This method can be applied together with genetic tools to better characterize the morphology and understand the development of the various ChOs in the fly.

Visualization of Proprioceptors in Drosophila Larvae and Pupae

A method to immunostain and visualize chordotonal organs in larvae and pupae of Drosophila melanogaster is described.

의 Proprioceptors의 시각화<em&gt; Drosophila</em&gt; 애벌레와 Pupae

Proprioception is the ability to sense the motion, or position, of body parts by responding to stimuli arising within the body. In fruitflies and other ...

Fiber-optic Implantation for Chronic Optogenetic Stimulation of Brain Tissue

Elucidating patterns of neuronal connectivity has been a challenge for both clinical and basic neuroscience. Electrophysiology has been the gold standard for analyzing patterns of synaptic connectivity, but paired electrophysiological recordings can be both cumbersome and experimentally limiting. The development of optogenetics has introduced an elegant method to stimulate neurons and circuits, both in vitro1 and in vivo2,3. By exploiting cell-type specific promoter activity to drive opsin expression in discrete neuronal populations, one can precisely stimulate genetically defined neuronal subtypes in distinct circuits4-6. Well described methods to stimulate neurons, including electrical stimulation and/or pharmacological manipulations, are often cell-type indiscriminate, invasive, and can damage surrounding tissues. These limitations could alter normal synaptic function and/or circuit behavior. In addition, due to the nature of the manipulation, the current methods are often acute and terminal. Optogenetics affords the ability to stimulate neurons in a relatively innocuous manner, and in genetically targeted neurons. The majority of studies involving in vivo optogenetics currently use a optical fiber guided through an implanted cannula6,7; however, limitations of this method include damaged brain tissue with repeated insertion of an optical fiber, and potential breakage of the fiber inside the cannula. Given the burgeoning field of optogenetics, a more reliable method of chronic stimulation is necessary to facilitate long-term studies with minimal collateral tissue damage. Here we provide our modified protocol as a video article to complement the method effectively and elegantly described in Sparta et al.8 for the fabrication of a fiber optic implant and its permanent fixation onto the cranium of anesthetized mice, as well as the assembly of the fiber optic coupler connecting the implant to a light source. The implant, connected with optical fibers to a solid-state laser, allows for an efficient method to chronically photostimulate functional neuronal circuitry with less tissue damage9 using small, detachable, tethers. Permanent fixation of the fiber optic implants provides consistent, long-term in vivo optogenetic studies of neuronal circuits in awake, behaving mice10 with minimal tissue damage.

The development of optogenetics now provides the means to precisely stimulate genetically defined neurons and circuits, both in vitro and in vivo. Here we describe the assembly and implantation of a fiber optic for chronic photostimulation of brain tissue.

뇌 조직의 만성 Optogenetic의 자극을위한 광섬유 주입

Elucidating patterns of neuronal connectivity has been a challenge for both clinical and basic neuroscience. Electrophysiology has been the gold standard ...

Optogenetic Stimulation of Escape Behavior in Drosophila melanogaster

A growing number of genetically encoded tools are becoming available that allow non-invasive manipulation of the neural activity of specific neurons in Drosophila melanogaster1. Chief among these are optogenetic tools, which enable the activation or silencing of specific neurons in the intact and freely moving animal using bright light. Channelrhodopsin (ChR2) is a light-activated cation channel that, when activated by blue light, causes depolarization of neurons that express it. ChR2 has been effective for identifying neurons critical for specific behaviors, such as CO2 avoidance, proboscis extension and giant-fiber mediated startle response2-4. However, as the intense light sources used to stimulate ChR2 also stimulate photoreceptors, these optogenetic techniques have not previously been used in the visual system. Here, we combine an optogenetic approach with a mutation that impairs phototransduction to demonstrate that activation of a cluster of loom-sensitive neurons in the fly's optic lobe, Foma-1 neurons, can drive an escape behavior used to avoid collision. We used a null allele of a critical component of the phototransduction cascade, phospholipase C-&beta;, encoded by the norpA gene, to render the flies blind and also use the Gal4-UAS transcriptional activator system to drive expression of ChR2 in the Foma-1 neurons. Individual flies are placed on a small platform surrounded by blue LEDs. When the LEDs are illuminated, the flies quickly take-off into flight, in a manner similar to visually driven loom-escape behavior. We believe that this technique can be easily adapted to examine other behaviors in freely moving flies.

Optogenetic Stimulation of Escape Behavior in Drosophila melanogaster

Genetically encoded optogenetic tools enable noninvasive manipulation of specific neurons in the Drosophila brain. Such tools can identify neurons whose activation is sufficient to elicit or suppress particular behaviors. Here we present a method for activating Channelrhodopsin2 that is expressed in targeted neurons in freely walking flies.

의 이스케이프 문제의 Optogenetic의 자극<em&gt; Drosophila melanogaster</em

A  growing number of genetically encoded tools are becoming available that allow non-invasive  manipulation of the neural activity of specific neurons in ...

In vivo Optogenetic Stimulation of the Rodent Central Nervous System

The ability to probe defined neural circuits in awake, freely-moving animals with cell-type specificity, spatial precision, and high temporal resolution has been a long sought tool for neuroscientists in the systems-level search for the neural circuitry governing complex behavioral states. Optogenetics is a cutting-edge tool that is revolutionizing the field of neuroscience and represents one of the first systematic approaches to enable causal testing regarding the relation between neural signaling events and behavior. By combining optical and genetic approaches, neural signaling can be bi-directionally controlled through expression of light-sensitive ion channels (opsins) in mammalian cells. The current protocol describes delivery of specific wavelengths of light to opsin-expressing cells in deep brain structures of awake, freely-moving rodents for neural circuit modulation. Theoretical principles of light transmission as an experimental consideration are discussed in the context of performing in vivo optogenetic stimulation. The protocol details the design and construction of both simple and complex laser configurations and describes tethering strategies to permit simultaneous stimulation of multiple animals for high-throughput behavioral testing.

In vivo Optogenetic Stimulation of the Rodent Central Nervous System

Optogenetics has become a powerful tool for use in behavioral neuroscience experiments. This protocol offers a step-by-step guide to the design and set-up of laser systems, and provides a full protocol for carrying out multiple and simultaneous in vivo optogenetic stimulations compatible with most rodent behavioral testing paradigms.

설치류 중추 신경계의 생체 Optogenetic 자극

The ability to probe defined neural circuits in awake, freely-moving animals with cell-type specificity, spatial precision, and high temporal resolution ...

Optogenetic Stimulation of the Auditory Nerve

Direct electrical stimulation of spiral ganglion neurons (SGNs) by cochlear implants (CIs) enables open speech comprehension in the majority of implanted deaf subjects1-6. Nonetheless, sound coding with current CIs has poor frequency and intensity resolution due to broad current spread from each electrode contact activating a large number of SGNs along the tonotopic axis of the cochlea7-9. Optical stimulation is proposed as an alternative to electrical stimulation that promises spatially more confined activation of SGNs and, hence, higher frequency resolution of coding. In recent years, direct infrared illumination of&#160;the cochlea has been used to evoke responses in the auditory nerve10. Nevertheless it requires higher energies than electrical stimulation10,11 and uncertainty remains as to the underlying mechanism12. Here we describe a method based on optogenetics to stimulate SGNs with low intensity blue light, using transgenic mice with neuronal expression of channelrhodopsin 2 (ChR2)13 or virus-mediated expression of the ChR2-variant CatCh14. We used micro-light emitting diodes (&#181;LEDs) and fiber-coupled lasers to stimulate ChR2-expressing SGNs through a small artificial opening (cochleostomy) or the round window. We assayed the responses by scalp recordings of light-evoked potentials (optogenetic auditory brainstem response: oABR) or by microelectrode recordings from the auditory pathway and compared them with acoustic and electrical stimulation.

Cochlear implants (CIs) enable hearing by direct electrical stimulation of the auditory nerve. However, poor frequency and intensity resolution limits the quality of hearing with CIs. Here we describe optogenetic stimulation of the auditory nerve in mice as an alternative strategy for auditory research and developing future CIs.

청각 신경의 자극 Optogenetic

Direct electrical stimulation of spiral ganglion neurons (SGNs) by cochlear implants (CIs) enables open speech comprehension in the majority of implanted ...

Analysis of Gene Expression Changes in the Rat Hippocampus After Deep Brain Stimulation of the Anterior Thalamic Nucleus

Deep brain stimulation (DBS) surgery, targeting various regions of the brain such as the basal ganglia, thalamus, and subthalamic regions, is an effective treatment for several movement disorders that have failed to respond to medication. Recent progress in the field of DBS surgery has begun to extend the application of this surgical technique to other conditions as diverse as morbid obesity, depression and obsessive compulsive disorder. Despite these expanding indications, little is known about the underlying physiological mechanisms that facilitate the beneficial effects of DBS surgery. One approach to this question is to perform gene expression analysis in neurons that receive the electrical stimulation. Previous studies have shown that neurogenesis in the rat dentate gyrus is elicited in DBS targeting of the anterior nucleus of the thalamus1. DBS surgery targeting the ATN is used widely for treatment refractory epilepsy. It is thus of much interest for us to explore the transcriptional changes induced by electrically stimulating the ATN. In this manuscript, we describe our methodologies for stereotactically-guided DBS surgery targeting the ATN in adult male Wistar rats. We also discuss the subsequent steps for tissue dissection, RNA isolation, cDNA preparation and quantitative RT-PCR for measuring gene expression changes. This method could be applied and modified for stimulating the basal ganglia and other regions of the brain commonly clinically targeted. The gene expression study described here assumes a candidate target gene approach for discovering molecular players that could be directing the mechanism for DBS.

The mechanism underlying the therapeutic effects of Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS) surgery needs investigation. The methods presented in this manuscript describe an experimental approach to examine the cellular events triggered by DBS by analyzing the gene expression profile of candidate genes that can facilitate neurogenesis post DBS surgery.

전방 시상 핵의 깊은 뇌 자극 후 쥐 해마의 유전자 발현 변화 분석

Deep brain stimulation (DBS) surgery, targeting various regions of the brain such as the basal ganglia, thalamus, and subthalamic regions, is an effective ...

In Vitro Modeling of Cancerous Neural Invasion: The Dorsal Root Ganglion Model

One way that solid tumors disseminate is through neural invasion. This route is well-known in cancers of the head and neck, prostate, and pancreas. These neurotropic cancer cells have a unique ability to migrate unidirectionally along nerves towards the central nervous system (CNS). The dorsal root ganglia (DRG)/cancer cell model is a three dimensional (3D) in vitro model frequently used for studying the interaction between neural stroma and cancer cells. In this model, mouse or human cancer cell lines are grown in ECM adjacent to preparations of freshly dissociated cultured DRG. In this article, the DRG isolation protocol from mice, and implantation in petri dishes for co-culturing with pancreatic cancer cells are demonstrated. Five days after implantation, the cancer cells made contact with the DRG neurites. Later, these cells formed bridgeheads to facilitate more extensive polarized, neurotropic migration of cancer cells.

In Vitro Modeling of Cancerous Neural Invasion: The Dorsal Root Ganglion Model

This video article shows the use of the dorsal root ganglia (DRG)/cancer cell model in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma.

등쪽 뿌리 신경절 모델 : 암성 신경 침략의 생체 외 모델링에서

One way that solid tumors disseminate is through neural invasion. This route is well-known in cancers of the head and neck, prostate, and pancreas. These ...