Name: a novel strategy combining array-cgh, whole-exome sequencing and in utero electroporation in rodents to identify causative genes for brain malformations
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Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Novel Strategy Combining Array-CGH, Whole-exome Sequencing and In Utero Electroporation in Rodents to Identify Causative Genes for Brain Malformations at Jo

We thank Dr. G. McGillivray, Pr. J. Clayton-Smith, Pr. W.B. Dobyns, Pr. P. Striano, Pr. I.E. Scheffer, Pr. S.P. Roberston and Pr. S.F. Berkovic for providing MCD patients. We thank Dr. F. Michel and D. Mei for technical advices and help. This work was supported by funding from the Seven Framework Programme of the EU, DESIRE project, contract number: Health-F2-602531-2013, (to V.C., R.G., A.R., A.F. and C.C.), INSERM (to A.R. and C.C.), Fondation J&#233;r&#244;me Lejeune (R13083AA to A.F, E.P.P and C.C) and R&#233;gion Provence Alpes C&#244;te d&#39;Azur (APO2014 - DEMOTIC to C.C. and A.A.D). D.A.K is an EMBO Young Investigator and is supported by FWF grants (I914 and P24367).

Ethics Statement: Wistar rats were mated, maintained and used in the INMED animal facilities, in agreement with European Union and French legislation.
1. DNA Extraction and Quantification for Array-CGH and WES
<ol>
	<li>Extract Genomic DNA (gDNA) from human blood leukocytes from patients using an automated DNA isolation robot or commercially available manual DNA extraction kits according to the manufacturer&#39;s protocol. Quantify all samples using a spectrophotometer.</li>
</ol>
<p class="...

<ol>
	<li>Meencke, H. J., Veith, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Migration+disturbances+in+epilepsy.">Migration disturbances in epilepsy.</a> Epilepsy Res. 9, 31-39 (1992).</li><li>Shorvon, S., Stefan, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Overview+of+the+safety+of+newer+antiepileptic+drugs.">Overview of the safety of newer antiepileptic drugs.</a> Epilepsia. 38 (1), 45-51 (1997).</li><li>Parrini, E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Periventricular+heterotopia:+phenotypic+heterogeneity+and+correlation+with+Filamin+A+mutations.">Periventricular heterotopia: phenotypic heterogeneity and correlation with Filamin A mutations.</a> Brain. 129 (7), 1892-1906 (2006).</li><li>Fox, J. W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mutations+in+filamin+1+prevent+migration+of+cerebral+cortical+neurons+in+human+periventricular+heterotopia.">Mutations in filamin 1 prevent migration of cerebral cortical neurons in human periventricular heterotopia.</a> Neuron. 21 (6), 1315-1325 (1998).</li><li>Sheen, V. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mutations+in+ARFGEF2+implicate+vesicle+trafficking+in+neural+progenitor+proliferation+and+migration+in+the+human+cerebral+cortex.">Mutations in ARFGEF2 implicate vesicle trafficking in neural progenitor proliferation and migration in the human cerebral cortex.</a> Nat Genet. 36 (1), 69-76 (2004).</li><li>Cappello, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mutations+in+genes+encoding+the+cadherin+receptor-ligand+pair+DCHS1+and+FAT4+disrupt+cerebral+cortical+development.">Mutations in genes encoding the cadherin receptor-ligand pair DCHS1 and FAT4 disrupt cerebral cortical development.</a> Nat Genet. 45 (11), 1300-1308 (2013).</li><li>Moro, F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Periventricular+heterotopia+in+fragile+X+syndrome.">Periventricular heterotopia in fragile X syndrome.</a> Neurology. 67 (4), 713-715 (2006).</li><li>Ferland, R. J., Gaitanis, J. N., Apse, K., Tantravahi, U., Walsh, C. A., Sheen, V. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Periventricular+nodular+heterotopia+and+Williams+syndrome.">Periventricular nodular heterotopia and Williams syndrome.</a> Am J Med Genet A. 140 (12), 1305-1311 (2006).</li><li>van Kogelenberg, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Periventricular+heterotopia+in+common+microdeletion+syndromes.">Periventricular heterotopia in common microdeletion syndromes.</a> Mol Syndromol. 1 (1), 35-41 (2010).</li><li>Sheen, V. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Periventricular+heterotopia+associated+with+chromosome+5p+anomalies.">Periventricular heterotopia associated with chromosome 5p anomalies.</a> Neurology. 60 (6), 1033-1036 (2003).</li><li>Neal, J., Apse, K., Sahin, M., Walsh, C. A., Sheen, V. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Deletion+of+chromosome+1p36+is+associated+with+periventricular+nodular+heterotopia.">Deletion of chromosome 1p36 is associated with periventricular nodular heterotopia.</a> Am J Med Genet A. 140 (15), 1692-1695 (2006).</li><li>Cardoso, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Periventricular+heterotopia,+mental+retardation,+and+epilepsy+associated+with+5q14.3-q15+deletion.">Periventricular heterotopia, mental retardation, and epilepsy associated with 5q14.3-q15 deletion.</a> Neurology. 72 (9), 784-792 (2009).</li><li>Cellini, E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Periventricular+heterotopia+with+white+matter+abnormalities+associated+with+6p25+deletion.">Periventricular heterotopia with white matter abnormalities associated with 6p25 deletion.</a> Am J Med Genet A. 158 (7), 1793-1797 (2006).</li><li>Bertini, V., De Vito, G., Costa, R., Simi, P., Valetto, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Isolated+6q+terminal+deletions:+an+emerging+new+syndrome.">Isolated 6q terminal deletions: an emerging new syndrome.</a> Am J Med Genet A. 140 (1), 74-81 (2006).</li><li>Dobyns, W. B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Consistent+chromosome+abnormalities+identify+novel+polymicrogyria+loci+in+1p36.3,+2p16.1-p23.1,+4q21.21-q22.1,+6q26-q27,+and+21q2.">Consistent chromosome abnormalities identify novel polymicrogyria loci in 1p36.3, 2p16.1-p23.1, 4q21.21-q22.1, 6q26-q27, and 21q2.</a> Am J Med Genet A. 146 (13), 1637-1654 (2008).</li><li>Conti, V., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Periventricular+heterotopia+in+6q+terminal+deletion+syndrome:+role+of+the+C6orf70+gene.">Periventricular heterotopia in 6q terminal deletion syndrome: role of the C6orf70 gene.</a> Brain. 136 (11), 3378-3394 (2013).</li><li>Sheen, V. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Etiological+heterogeneity+of+familial+periventricular+heterotopia+and+hydrocephalus.">Etiological heterogeneity of familial periventricular heterotopia and hydrocephalus.</a> Brain Dev. 26 (5), 326-334 (2004).</li><li>Jaglin, X. H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mutations+in+the+beta-tubulin+gene+TUBB2B+result+in+asymmetrical+polymicrogyria.">Mutations in the beta-tubulin gene TUBB2B result in asymmetrical polymicrogyria.</a> Nat. Genet. 41 (6), 746-752 (2009).</li><li>Falace, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=TBC1D24+regulates+neuronal+migration+and+maturation+through+modulation+of+the+ARF6-dependent+pathway.">TBC1D24 regulates neuronal migration and maturation through modulation of the ARF6-dependent pathway.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 111 (6), 2337-2342 (2014).</li><li>Lunter, G., Goodson, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Stampy:+a+statistical+algorithm+for+sensitive+and+fast+mapping+of+Illumina+sequence+reads.">Stampy: a statistical algorithm for sensitive and fast mapping of Illumina sequence reads.</a> Genome Res. 21 (6), 936-939 (2011).</li><li>Pagnamenta, A. T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Exome+sequencing+can+detect+pathogenic+mosaic+mutations+present+at+low+allele+frequencies.">Exome sequencing can detect pathogenic mosaic mutations present at low allele frequencies.</a> J Hum Genet. 57 (1), 70-72 (2012).</li><li>Yu, J. Y., DeRuiter, S. L., Turner, D. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=RNA+interference+by+expression+of+short-interfering+RNAs+and+hairpin+RNAs+in+mammalian+cells.">RNA interference by expression of short-interfering RNAs and hairpin RNAs in mammalian cells.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 99 (9), 6047-6052 (2002).</li><li>Bai, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=RNAi+reveals+doublecortin+is+required+for+radial+migration+in+rat+neocortex.">RNAi reveals doublecortin is required for radial migration in rat neocortex.</a> Nat Neurosci. 6 (12), 1277-1283 (2003).</li><li>Carabalona, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+glial+origin+for+periventricular+nodular+heterotopia+caused+by+impaired+expression+of+Filamin-A.">A glial origin for periventricular nodular heterotopia caused by impaired expression of Filamin-A.</a> Hum Mol Genet. 21 (5), 1004-1017 (2012).</li></ol>

MCDs are important causes of intellectual disability and account for 20-40% of drug-resistant childhood epilepsy1,2. Interest in MCDs has increased dramatically over the past decade as a result of two major factors. The first is the improvement in brain imaging (particularly MRI), which allows physicians and scientists to visualize many brain malformations that were not previously recognized. The other is the evolution of genetic tools that have allowed the ident...

The cerebral cortex plays a key role in cognitive and intellectual processes and is involved in emotional control as well as learning and memory. It is therefore not surprising that many neurological and psychiatric diseases result from malformations of cortical development (MCD). The etiology of MCD is complex since both acquired and genetic factors are involved. The cumulative prevalence of genetically determined proportion of MCD is about 2% and they are sporadic in most cases. For instance, the incidence of congenital brain dysgenesis was estimated to be higher than 1% in the human population, and some forms of MCD are observed in more than 14% of all patients with epilepsy and in 40% of severe or intractable epilepsy1,2.
Periventricular Nodular Heterotopia (PNH) is one of the most common MCDs and is caused by abnormal migration of neurons from the ventricular zone (VZ) to the developing cerebral cortex. The failure of neurons to migrate results in clusters of heterotopic neurons along the walls of the lateral ventricles which can usually be visualized using Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). The clinical, anatomic and imaging features of PNH are heterogeneous. Nodules may range from small and unilateral to bilateral and symmetric. Common clinical sequelae include epilepsy and intellectual disabilities3. Mutations in the Filamin A (or FLNA) gene, which maps in Xq28, were found in 100% of families with X-linked bilateral PNH and in 26% of sporadic patients3,4. A rare, recessive form of PNH caused by mutations in the ARFGEF2 gene, which maps in 20q13, has been reported in two consanguineous families5. Recently, biallelic mutations in genes encoding the receptor-ligand cadherin pair DCHS1 and FAT4 have been identified in nine patients affected by a multisystemic disorder that includes PNH6. PNH has also been associated with fragile X syndrome7, Williams syndrome8, 22q11 microdeletion syndrome9, duplications at 5p1510, deletions at 1p3611, 5q14.3-q1512, 6p2513 and 6q terminal deletion syndrome14,15,16,17,18,19, suggesting that additional causative genes are scattered throughout the genome. However, for approximately 74% of sporadic PNH patients the genetic basis remains to be elucidated17.
Classical gene mapping approaches such as array Comparative Genomic Hybridization (array-CGH) have proven to be a powerful tools for the detection of sub-microscopic chromosomal abnormalities, however, the genomic regions identified using this approach are often large and contain numerous genes.
The advent of massive parallel sequencing techniques (i.e. Whole-Exome Sequencing (WES) and Whole-Genome sequencing (WGS)) has substantially reduced both the cost and the time required to sequence an entire human exome or genome. Nevertheless, interpretation of WES and WGS data remains challenging in the majority of cases, since for each patient tens to hundreds (or even thousands, depending from the type of analysis) variants emerge from data filtering.
To speed up the process of identifying novel MCD causative genes, a novel systematic strategy combining array-CGH, WES and in utero electroporation (IUE) screening of candidate genes was designed. IUE allows to selectively inactivate (or overexpress) specific genes or mutations in rodent brains, enabling rapid evaluation of their involvement in corticogenesis18,19. RNAi mediated-knockdown or overexpression of one or more candidate genes is expected to cause, when the gene is associated with disease development, localized defects in neuronal migration and/or maturation. Upon the identification of a gene whose inactivation (or overexpression) reproduces the phenotype observed in patients in rodents, it becomes an outstanding candidate for the screening in sporadic patients with MCD. Using this approach, we recently revealed the crucial contribution of the C6orf70 gene (also known as ERMARD) in PNH pathogenesis in patients harbouring 6q27 chromosomal deletions16.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr >
			<td >Picospritzer III</td>
			<td >Parker Hannifin Corp</td>
			<td >P/N 051-0500-900</td>
			<td >Intracellular Microinjection Dispense Systems</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Fast Green FCF</td>
			<td >Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td >F7252</td>
			<td>Fast green allow visual monitoring of the injection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >BTX ECM 830 electroporator</td>
			<td >BTX Harvard Apparatus</td>
			<td >45-0002</td>
			<td>The ECM 830 is a Square Wave Pulse generator designed for in vitro and in vivo applications</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Microtome HM 650 V</td>
			<td >Microm</td>
			<td>10076838</td>
			<td>Microtome HM 650 V vibratome 240V 50/60Hz with vibrating blade</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >FluoView 300</td>
			<td >Olympus</td>
			<td ></td>
			<td>The Olympus FluoViewTM 300 is a point-scanning, point-detection, confocal laser scanning microscope designed for biology research application</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >eCELLence software</td>
			<td >Glance Vision Technologies</td>
			<td ></td>
			<td>eCELLence is software designed for the quantitive analysis of cell migration</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Agilent Microarray Scanner Bundle</td>
			<td ></td>
			<td ></td>
			<td>Array slides</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >for 1 x 244K, 2 x 105K, 4 x 44K or 8 x 15K</td>
			<td >Agilent</td>
			<td >Agilent p/n G4900DA, G2565CA or G2565BA</td>
			<td ></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >for 1 x 1M, 2 x 400K, 4 x 180K or 8 x 60K</td>
			<td >Agilent</td>
			<td >Agilent p/n G4900DA or G2565CA</td>
			<td ></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Hybridization Chamber, stainless</td>
			<td >Agilent</td>
			<td>Agilent p/n G2534A</td>
			<td>Chamber for array CGH hybridization</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Hybridization Chamber gasket slides, 5-pack</td>
			<td></td>
			<td ></td>
			<td>Gasket for array CGH hybridization</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >for 1-pack microarrays or</td>
			<td >Agilent</td>
			<td >Agilent p/n G2534-60003</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >for 2-pack microarrays or</td>
			<td >Agilent</td>
			<td >Agilent p/n G2534-60002</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >for 4-pack microarrays or</td>
			<td >Agilent</td>
			<td >Agilent p/n G2534-60011</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >for 8-pack microarrays</td>
			<td >Agilent</td>
			<td >Agilent p/n G2534-60014</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Hybridization oven</td>
			<td >Agilent</td>
			<td >Agilent p/n G2545A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Hybridization oven rotator for Agilent Microarray Hybridization Chambers</td>
			<td >Agilent</td>
			<td >Agilent p/n G2530-60029</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Thermal cycler with heated lid</td>
			<td >Agilent</td>
			<td >Agilent p/n G8800A or equivalent</td>
			<td>Termal cycler for incubations</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >1.5 mL RNase-free Microfuge Tube</td>
			<td >Ambion</td>
			<td >p/n AM12400 or equivalent</td>
			<td>Microcentrifuge</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Magnetic stir bar</td>
			<td >Corning</td>
			<td >p/n 401435 or equivalent</td>
			<td>Instrument for stirring</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Qubit Fluorometer</td>
			<td >Life Technologies</td>
			<td >p/n Q32857</td>
			<td>Instrument for DNA quantification</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Qubit dsDNA BR Assay Kit, for use with the Qubit fluorometer</td>
			<td >Invitrogen</td>
			<td >p/n Q32850</td>
			<td>Kit for Qubit fluorometer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >UV-VIS spectrophotometer</td>
			<td >Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td >NanoDrop 8000 or 2000, or equivalent</td>
			<td>Instrument for DNA quantification</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >P10, P20, P200 and P1000 pipettes</td>
			<td >Pipetman or equivalent</td>
			<td ></td>
			<td>DNA dispensation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Vacuum Concentrator</td>
			<td >Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td >p/n DNA120-115 or 
			equivalent</td>
			<td>Instrument to concentrate DNA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >SureTag Complete DNA Labeling Kit</td>
			<td >Agilent</td>
			<td >p/n 5190-4240</td>
			<td>DNA Labeling Kit (for Human Samples)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Purification Columns (50 units)</td>
			<td >Agilent</td>
			<td >p/n 5190-3391</td>
			<td>DNA Labeling Kit (for Human Samples)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >AutoScreen A, 96-well plates</td>
			<td >GE Healthcare</td>
			<td >p/n 25-9005-98</td>
			<td>DNA Labeling Kit (for Human Samples)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >GenElute PCR Clean-Up Kit</td>
			<td >Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td >p/n NA1020</td>
			<td>DNA Labeling Kit (for Human Samples)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Human Genomic DNA</td>
			<td ></td>
			<td >p/n G1521</td>
			<td>DNA Labeling Kit (for Human Samples)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >For CGH microarrays:</td>
			<td >Promega</td>
			<td >(female) or p/n G1471 (male)</td>
			<td>Array CGH control DNA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >For CGH+SNP microarrays:</td>
			<td >Coriell</td>
			<td >p/n NA18507, NA18517, NA12891, NA12878, or NA18579</td>
			<td>Array CGH control DNA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Oligo aCGH/ChIP-on-chip Wash Buffer Kit or</td>
			<td >Agilent</td>
			<td >p/n 5188-5226</td>
			<td>Array CGH hybridization and wash</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Oligo aCGH/ChIP-on-chip Wash Buffer 1 and</td>
			<td >Agilent</td>
			<td >p/n 5188-5221</td>
			<td>Array CGH hybridization and wash</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Oligo aCGH/ChIP-on-chip Wash Buffer 2</td>
			<td >Agilent</td>
			<td >p/n 5188-5222</td>
			<td>Array CGH hybridization and wash</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Stabilization and Drying Solution</td>
			<td >Agilent</td>
			<td >p/n 5185-5979</td>
			<td>Array CGH hybridization and wash</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Oligo aCGH/ChIP-on-chip Hybridization Kit</td>
			<td >Agilent</td>
			<td >p/n 5188-5220 (25) or p/n 5188-5380 (100)</td>
			<td>Array CGH hybridization and wash</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Human Cot-1 DNA</td>
			<td >Agilent</td>
			<td >p/n 5190-3393</td>
			<td>Array CGH hybridization and wash</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Agilent C scanner</td>
			<td >Agilent</td>
			<td ></td>
			<td>Scanner for array CGH slides</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >SureSelect XT2 Reagent Kit</td>
			<td ></td>
			<td ></td>
			<td>Kit for target enrichment</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >HiSeq platform (HSQ), 16 Samples</td>
			<td >Agilent</td>
			<td >p/n G9621A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >HiSeq platform (HSQ), 96 Samples</td>
			<td >Agilent</td>
			<td >p/n G9621B</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >HiSeq platform (HSQ), 480 Samples</td>
			<td >Agilent</td>
			<td >p/n G9621C</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >MiSeq platform (MSQ), 16 Samples</td>
			<td >Agilent</td>
			<td >p/n G9622A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >MiSeq platform (MSQ), 96 Samples</td>
			<td >Agilent</td>
			<td >p/n G9622B</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >MiSeq platform (MSQ), 480 Samples</td>
			<td >Agilent</td>
			<td >p/n G9622C</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >DNA 1000 Kit</td>
			<td >Agilent</td>
			<td >p/n 5067-1504</td>
			<td>Kit for the separation, sizing and quantification of dsDNA fragments from 25 to 1000 bp.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >High Sensitivity DNA Kit</td>
			<td >Agilent</td>
			<td >p/n 5067-4626</td>
			<td>Kit for analysis of fragmented DNA or DNA libraries.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >AMPure XP Kit</td>
			<td ></td>
			<td ></td>
			<td>Kit for automated PCR purification.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >5 mL</td>
			<td >Agencourt</td>
			<td >p/n A63880</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >60 mL</td>
			<td >Agencourt</td>
			<td >p/n A63881</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >450 mL</td>
			<td >Agencourt</td>
			<td >p/n A63882</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Dynabeads MyOne Streptavidin T1</td>
			<td ></td>
			<td ></td>
			<td>Isolation and handling of biotinylated nucleic acids</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >2 mL</td>
			<td >Life Technologies</td>
			<td >Cat #65601</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >10 mL</td>
			<td >Life Technologies</td>
			<td >Cat #65602</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Quant-iT dsDNA BR Assay Kit, for the Qubit fluorometer</td>
			<td ></td>
			<td ></td>
			<td>DNA quantification</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >100 assays, 2-1000 ng</td>
			<td >Life Technologies</td>
			<td >Cat #Q32850</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >500 assays, 2-1000 ng</td>
			<td >Life Technologies</td>
			<td >Cat #Q32853</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Qubit assay tubes</td>
			<td >Life Technologies</td>
			<td >p/n Q32856</td>
			<td>DNA quantification</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >SureSelec tXT2 Capture Libraries</td>
			<td >Agilent</td>
			<td >depending on the experiment</td>
			<td>Kit for libraries capture</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >SureCycler 8800 Thermal Cycler</td>
			<td >Agilent</td>
			<td >p/n G8800A</td>
			<td>DNA amplification</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >96 well plate module for SureCycler 8800 Thermal Cycler</td>
			<td >Agilent</td>
			<td >p/n G8810A</td>
			<td>DNA amplification</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >SureCycler 8800-compatible 96-well plates</td>
			<td >Agilent</td>
			<td >p/n 410088</td>
			<td>DNA amplification</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Optical strip caps</td>
			<td >Agilent</td>
			<td >p/n 401425</td>
			<td>DNA amplification</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Tube cap strips, domed</td>
			<td >Agilent</td>
			<td >p/n 410096</td>
			<td>DNA amplification</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Compression mats</td>
			<td >Agilent</td>
			<td >p/n 410187</td>
			<td>DNA amplification</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >2100 Bioanalyzer Laptop Bundle</td>
			<td >Agilent</td>
			<td >p/n G2943CA</td>
			<td>DNA amplification</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >2100 Bioanalyzer Electrophoresis Set</td>
			<td >Agilent</td>
			<td >p/n G2947CA</td>
			<td>DNA amplification</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Covaris Sample Preparation System, E-series or S-series</td>
			<td >Covaris</td>
			<td ></td>
			<td>DNA shearing</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Covaris sample holders</td>
			<td ></td>
			<td >p/n 520078</td>
			<td>DNA shearing</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Nutator plate mixer</td>
			<td >BD Diagnostics</td>
			<td >p/n 421105 or equivalent</td>
			<td>Plate Mixer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >GaIIx</td>
			<td >Illumina</td>
			<td ></td>
			<td>next generation sequencing machine</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a novel strategy combining array-cgh, whole-exome sequencing and in utero electroporation in rodents to identify causative genes for brain malformations

Birth defects that involve the cerebral cortex &#8212; also known as malformations of cortical development (MCD) &#8212; are important causes of intellectual disability and account for 20-40% of drug-resistant epilepsy in childhood. High-resolution brain imaging has facilitated in vivo identification of a large group of MCD phenotypes. Despite the advances in brain imaging, genomic analysis and generation of animal models, a straightforward workflow to systematically prioritize candidate genes and to test functional effects of putative mutations is missing. To overcome this problem, an experimental strategy enabling the identification of novel causative genes for MCD was developed and validated. This strategy is based on identifying candidate genomic regions or genes via array-CGH or whole-exome sequencing and characterizing the effects of their inactivation or of overexpression of specific mutations in developing rodent brains via in utero electroporation. This approach led to the identification of the C6orf70 gene, encoding for a putative vesicular protein, to the pathogenesis of periventricular nodular heterotopia, a MCD caused by defective neuronal migration.

The experimental strategy designed to identify novel MCD causative genes is recapitulated in Figure 1.
By performing array-CGH in a cohort of 155 patients with developmental brain abnormalities variably combining PNH (Figure 2A), corpus callosum dysgenesis, colpocephaly, cerebellar hypoplasia and polymicrogyria associated with epilepsy, ataxia and cognitive impairment, we identified a 1.2 Mb min...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Novel Strategy Combining Array-CGH, Whole-exome Sequencing and In Utero Electroporation in Rodents to Identify Causative Genes for Brain Malformations at Jo

A Novel Strategy Combining Array-CGH, Whole-exome Sequencing and In Utero Electroporation in Rodents to Identify Causative Genes for Brain Malformations

Periventricular nodular heterotopia (PNH) is the most common form of malformation of cortical development (MCD) in adulthood but its genetic basis remains unknown in most sporadic cases. We have recently developed a strategy to identify novel candidate genes for MCDs and to directly confirm their causative role in vivo.

A Novel Strategy Combining Array-CGH, Whole-exome Sequencing and In Utero Electroporation in Rodents to Identify Causative Genes for Brain Malformations

Birth defects that involve the cerebral cortex &#8212; also known as malformations of cortical development (MCD) &#8212; are important causes of ...

The overall goal of this procedure is to identify novel candidate genes for brain malformation disorders and to directly confirm their causative role in-vivo. This strategy can help answer key questions in the field of neurobiology by discovering molecular pathways associated with brain development and correlated pathologies. The main advantage of this strategy is that it will help discovering novel genes associated with brain disorders and to develop new diagnostic tools.Using this approach we could disclose to the crucial contribution of the C6orf70 gene in the pathogenesis of periventricular nodular heterotopia, a brain malformation caused by abnormal neuronal migration. Demonstrating the procedure will be Fabienne Schaller, an engineer from our laboratory. Prepare an E15 pregnant rat for the procedure as outlined in the written protocol and according to institutional and national guidelines.Ensure that the animal is properly anesthetized, that ophthalmic ointment is applied to the eyes, and that the abdomen is properly shaved and disinfected. After using sharp scissors to make a two centimeter vertical incision in the skin and the muscle of the caudal abdomen midline carefully expose one uterine horn from the abdominal cavity. Apply 37 degree Celsius pre-warmed normal saline solution dropwise to moisturize the embryos.Keep the uterus moist throughout the procedure. To inject DNA, gently hold an embryo in one hand with the head easily accessible. Then, using the other hand, carefully insert a glass capillary connected to a microinjector into the left lateral ventricle which is located one millimeter from the midline and at a depth of two to three millimeters.Use the microinjector to inject approximately one microliter of DNA with fast green to allow visual monitoring of the injection. To electroporate the DNA into the cells, first drop normal saline solution onto the surface of the three by seven millimeter electrode. Then place the positive electrode on the injected side and the negative electrode on the uninjected right ventricle.Use the foot controlled pedal to deliver five electrical pulse at 950 millisecond intervals. Following electroporation, return the uterine horn to the abdominal cavity and add sterile saline to allow the embryos to position more naturally and to account for intraoperative fluid loss. Close the muscle wall with absorbable surgical sutures, then the skin using a simple interrupted stitch.Provide post-operative analgesia for up to 48 hours or as indicated by institutional guidelines. Return the rat to its clean home cage and monitor it until it emerges from anesthesia. After fixing the brains in 4%paraformaldehyde as outlined in the written portion of the protocol, wash in PBS for 10 minutes.While washing, prepare 50 milliliters of 4%agar in PBS ensuring that the temperature of the dissolved agarose does not exceed 50 degrees Celsius. Pour the agarose into plastic embedding molds and then place the brains in the agarose. Place the embedded brains at four degrees Celsius and allow the agarose to polymerize for at least an hour.After the agarose has polymerized trim excess agarose from around the brain, then glue the brain to the vibratome base plate with the anterior posterior access of the brain perpendicular to the blade. After waiting a few minutes for the glue to dry, place the plate with the glued brain into the vibratome chamber. Fill the vibratome with PBS and begin slicing 100 micron thick sections.After sectioning, transfer the sections to microscope slides and remove excess liquid. Then add a few drops of mounting medium and place a cover slip on top of the sections. Allow to dry overnight.Image the sections using 10x magnification on a laser scanning confocal microscope. To analyze the images, first convert the image in 8-bit using appropriate software for quantitative image analysis. Then select one representative GFP positive florescent cell and manually define its shape by clicking on estimate and using the free hand selection tool to draw the border of the cell.The software automatically retains the diameter and intensity threshold of the cell. Click on find cells to allow the software to localize transfected cells throughout the cortex. Then, if needed, manually remove false positives.Divide the whole thickness of the cortex into eight areas of interest, normalized in individual sections, by clicking on region tool, selecting eight region stripes, where stripes one and eight correspond to the ventricular zone and to the top of the cortical plate respectively. Next, click on apply to allow the software to count the relative position of GFP transfected cells in the whole cortex. Finally, click on save quantification to export data in an Excel file for analysis.Array CGH and whole exome sequencing identified C6orf70 as a candidate gene for developmental gene abnormalities. Quantitative PCR determined that this gene, along with PHF10 and DLL1 are expressed in rat cerebral cortex. The following images show representative neocortical coronal sections of E20 rat brains 5 days after electroporation with either green fluorescent protein construct alone or combined with shRNA targeting the C6orf70 coding sequence or with the relative ineffective mismatch construct.Filament A knock down was used as control of impaired neuronal migration. In-utero electroporation with shRNA targeting the C6orf70 or Filament A induced arrest of GFP positive cells within the ventricular zone as indicated by the white arrows, whereas the cells expressing GFP alone, or in combination with the mismatch construct did not alter neuronal migration. While attempting this procedure it's important to take to mind which state of cortical genesis you want to analyze, either neuronal proliferation, migration, or maturation.Don't forget that learning to perform in-utero electroporation in rodent embryonic brain requires a long training period, skills, and regular practice.

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Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

Combining Behavioral Endocrinology and Experimental Economics: Testosterone and Social Decision Making

Behavioral endocrinological research in humans as well as in animals suggests that testosterone plays a key role in social interactions. Studies in rodents have shown a direct link between testosterone and aggressive behavior1 and folk wisdom adapts these findings to humans, suggesting that testosterone induces antisocial, egoistic or even aggressive behavior2. However, many researchers doubt a direct testosterone-aggression link in humans, arguing instead that testosterone is primarily involved in status-related behavior3,4. As a high status can also be achieved by aggressive and antisocial means it can be difficult to distinguish between anti-social and status seeking behavior.
We therefore set up an experimental environment, in which status can only be achieved by prosocial means. In a double-blind and placebo-controlled experiment, we administered a single sublingual dose of 0.5 mg of testosterone (with a hydroxypropyl-&beta;-cyclodextrin carrier) to 121 women and investigated their social interaction behavior in an economic bargaining paradigm. Real monetary incentives are at stake in this paradigm; every player A receives a certain amount of money and has to make an offer to another player B on how to share the money. If B accepts, she gets what was offered and player A keeps the rest. If B refuses the offer, nobody gets anything. A status seeking player A is expected to avoid being rejected by behaving in a prosocial way, i.e. by making higher offers.
The results show that if expectations about the hormone are controlled for, testosterone administration leads to a significant increase in fair bargaining offers compared to placebo. The role of expectations is reflected in the fact that subjects who report that they believe to have received testosterone make lower offers than those who say they believe that they were treated with a placebo. These findings suggest that the experimental economics approach is sensitive for detecting neurobiological effects as subtle as those achieved by administration of hormones. Moreover, the findings point towards the importance of both psychosocial as well as neuroendocrine factors in determining the influence of testosterone on human social behavior.

The procedure described in this protocol shows that testosterone administration and folk beliefs about testosterone may be associated with directly opposed social behaviors.

Behavioral endocrinological research in humans as well as in animals suggests that testosterone plays a key role in social interactions. Studies in ...

Combining Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation and fMRI to Examine the Default Mode Network

The default mode network is a group of brain regions that are active when an individual is not focused on the outside world and the brain is at "wakeful rest."1,2,3 It is thought the default mode network corresponds to self-referential or "internal mentation".2,3
It has been hypothesized that, in humans, activity within the default mode network is correlated with certain pathologies (for instance, hyper-activation has been linked to schizophrenia 4,5,6 and autism spectrum disorders 7 whilst hypo-activation of the network has been linked to Alzheimer's and other neurodegenerative diseases 8). As such, noninvasive modulation of this network may represent a potential therapeutic intervention for a number of neurological and psychiatric pathologies linked to abnormal network activation. One possible tool to effect this modulation is Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation: a non-invasive neurostimulatory and neuromodulatory technique that can transiently or lastingly modulate cortical excitability (either increasing or decreasing it) via the application of localized magnetic field pulses.9
In order to explore the default mode network's propensity towards and tolerance of modulation, we will be combining TMS (to the left inferior parietal lobe) with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Through this article, we will examine the protocol and considerations necessary to successfully combine these two neuroscientific tools.

In this article, we examine the methodology and considerations relevant to the combination of TMS and fMRI to examine the effects of brain stimulation on the default network.

The default mode network is a group of brain regions that are active when an individual is not focused on the outside world and the brain is at "wakeful ...

Efficient Gene Delivery into Multiple CNS Territories Using In Utero Electroporation

The ability to manipulate gene expression is the cornerstone of modern day experimental embryology, leading to the elucidation of multiple developmental pathways. Several powerful and well established transgenic technologies are available to manipulate gene expression levels in mouse, allowing for the generation of both loss- and gain-of-function models. However, the generation of mouse transgenics is both costly and time consuming. Alternative methods of gene manipulation have therefore been widely sought. In utero electroporation is a method of gene delivery into live mouse embryos1,2 that we have successfully adapted3,4. It is largely based on the success of in ovo electroporation technologies that are commonly used in chick5. Briefly, DNA is injected into the open ventricles of the developing brain and the application of an electrical current causes the formation of transient pores in cell membranes, allowing for the uptake of DNA into the cell. In our hands, embryos can be efficiently electroporated as early as embryonic day (E) 11.5, while the targeting of younger embryos would require an ultrasound-guided microinjection protocol, as previously described6. Conversely, E15.5 is the latest stage we can easily electroporate, due to the onset of parietal and frontal bone differentiation, which hampers microinjection into the brain. In contrast, the retina is accessible through the end of embryogenesis. Embryos can be collected at any time point throughout the embryonic or early postnatal period. Injection of a reporter construct facilitates the identification of transfected cells.
To date, in utero electroporation has been most widely used for the analysis of neocortical development1,2,3,4. More recent studies have targeted the embryonic retina7,8,9 and thalamus10,11,12. Here, we present a modified in utero electroporation protocol that can be easily adapted to target different domains of the embryonic CNS. We provide evidence that by using this technique, we can target the embryonic telencephalon, diencephalon and retina. Representative results are presented, first showing the use of this technique to introduce DNA expression constructs into the lateral ventricles, allowing us to monitor progenitor maturation, differentiation and migration in the embryonic telencephalon. We also show that this technique can be used to target DNA to the diencephalic territories surrounding the 3rd ventricle, allowing the migratory routes of differentiating neurons into diencephalic nuclei to be monitored. Finally, we show that the use of micromanipulators allows us to accurately introduce DNA constructs into small target areas, including the subretinal space, allowing us to analyse the effects of manipulating gene expression on retinal development.

Efficient Gene Delivery into Multiple CNS Territories Using In Utero Electroporation

In utero electroporation allows for rapid gene delivery in a spatially- and temporally-controlled manner in the developing central nervous system (CNS). Here we describe a highly adaptable in utero electroporation protocol that can be used to deliver expression constructs into multiple embryonic CNS domains, including the telencephalon, diencephalon and retina.

The ability to manipulate gene expression is the cornerstone of modern day experimental embryology, leading to the elucidation of multiple developmental ...

Mouse in Utero Electroporation: Controlled Spatiotemporal Gene Transfection

In order to understand the function of genes expressed in specific region of the developing brain, including signaling molecules and axon guidance molecules, local gene transfer or knock- out is required. Gene targeting knock-in or knock-out into local regions is possible to perform with combination with a specific CRE line, which is laborious, costly, and time consuming. Therefore, a simple transfection method, an in utero electroporation technique, which can be performed with short time, will be handy to test the possible function of candidate genes prior to the generation of transgenic animals 1,2. In addition to this, in utero electroporation targets areas of the brain where no specific CRE line exists, and will limit embryonic lethality 3,4. Here, we present a method of in utero electroporation combining two different types of electrodes for simple and convenient gene transfer into target areas of the developing brain. First, a unique holding method of embryos using an optic fiber optic light cable will make small embryos (from E9.5) visible for targeted DNA solution injection into ventricles and needle type electrodes insertion to the targeted brain area 5,6. The patterning of the brain such as cortical area occur at early embryonic stage, therefore, these early electroporation from E9.5 make a big contribution to understand entire area patterning event. Second, the precise shape of a capillary prevents uterine damage by making holes by insertion of the capillary. Furthermore, the precise shape of the needle electrodes are created with tungsten and platinum wire and sharpened using sand paper and insulated with nail polish 7, a method which is described in great detail in this protocol. This unique technique allows transfection of plasmid DNA into restricted areas of the brain and will enable small embryos to be electroporated. This will help to, open a new window for many scientists who are working on cell differentiation, cell migration, axon guidance in very early embryonic stage. Moreover, this technique will allow scientists to transfect plasmid DNA into deep parts of the developing brain such as thalamus and hypothalamus, where not many region-specific CRE lines exist for gain of function (GOF) or loss of function (LOF) analyses.

Mouse in Utero Electroporation: Controlled Spatiotemporal Gene Transfection

A gene transfer method into the developing mouse brain is described by using a unique surgical method and special shape of electrodes. This unique technique allows transfection of plasmid DNA temporally and spatially, which will aid many neuroscientists in studying brain development.

In order to understand the function of genes expressed in specific region of the developing brain, including signaling molecules and axon guidance ...

Visualization and Genetic Manipulation of Dendrites and Spines in the Mouse Cerebral Cortex and Hippocampus using In utero Electroporation

In utero electroporation (IUE) has become a powerful technique to study the development of different regions of the embryonic nervous system 1-5. To date this tool has been widely used to study the regulation of cellular proliferation, differentiation and neuronal migration especially in the developing cerebral cortex 6-8. Here we detail our protocol to electroporate in utero the cerebral cortex and the hippocampus and provide evidence that this approach can be used to study dendrites and spines in these two cerebral regions.
Visualization and manipulation of neurons in primary cultures have contributed to a better understanding of the processes involved in dendrite, spine and synapse development. However neurons growing in vitro are not exposed to all the physiological cues that can affect dendrite and/or spine formation and maintenance during normal development. Our knowledge of dendrite and spine structures in vivo in wild-type or mutant mice comes mostly from observations using the Golgi-Cox method 9. However, Golgi staining is considered to be unpredictable. Indeed, groups of nerve cells and fiber tracts are labeled randomly, with particular areas often appearing completely stained while adjacent areas are devoid of staining. Recent studies have shown that IUE of fluorescent constructs represents an attractive alternative method to study dendrites, spines as well as synapses in mutant / wild-type mice 10-11 (Figure 1A). Moreover in comparison to the generation of mouse knockouts, IUE represents a rapid approach to perform gain and loss of function studies in specific population of cells during a specific time window. In addition, IUE has been successfully used with inducible gene expression or inducible RNAi approaches to refine the temporal control over the expression of a gene or shRNA 12. These advantages of IUE have thus opened new dimensions to study the effect of gene expression/suppression on dendrites and spines not only in specific cerebral structures (Figure 1B) but also at a specific time point of development (Figure 1C).
Finally, IUE provides a useful tool to identify functional interactions between genes involved in dendrite, spine and/or synapse development. Indeed, in contrast to other gene transfer methods such as virus, it is straightforward to combine multiple RNAi or transgenes in the same population of cells. 
In summary, IUE is a powerful method that has already contributed to the characterization of molecular mechanisms underlying brain function and disease and it should also be useful in the study of dendrites and spines.

Visualization and Genetic Manipulation of Dendrites and Spines in the Mouse Cerebral Cortex and Hippocampus using In utero Electroporation

This article describes in detail a protocol to electroporate in utero the cerebral cortex and the hippocampus at E14.5 in mice. We also show that this is a valuable method to study dendrites and spines in these two cerebral regions.

In utero electroporation (IUE) has become a powerful technique to study the development of different regions of the embryonic nervous system 1-5. To date ...

Generation of Topically Transgenic Rats by In utero Electroporation and In vivo Bioluminescence Screening

In utero electroporation (IUE) is a technique which allows genetic modification of cells in the brain for investigating neuronal development. So far, the use of IUE for investigating behavior or neuropathology in the adult brain has been limited by insufficient methods for monitoring of IUE transfection success by non-invasive techniques in postnatal animals. 
 For the present study, E16 rats were used for IUE. After intraventricular injection of the nucleic acids into the embryos, positioning of the tweezer electrodes was critical for targeting either the developing cortex or the hippocampus. 
 Ventricular co-injection and electroporation of a luciferase gene allowed monitoring of the transfected cells postnatally after intraperitoneal luciferin injection in the anesthetized live P7 pup by in vivo bioluminescence, using an IVIS Spectrum device with 3D quantification software. 
 Area definition by bioluminescence could clearly differentiate between cortical and hippocampal electroporations and detect a signal longitudinally over time up to 5 weeks after birth. This imaging technique allowed us to select pups with a sufficient number of transfected cells assumed necessary for triggering biological effects and, subsequently, to perform behavioral investigations at 3 month of age. As an example, this study demonstrates that IUE with the human full length DISC1 gene into the rat cortex led to amphetamine hypersensitivity. Co-transfected GFP could be detected in neurons by post mortem fluorescence microscopy in cryosections indicating gene expression present at &ge;6 months after birth.
 We conclude that postnatal bioluminescence imaging allows evaluating the success of transient transfections with IUE in rats. Investigations on the influence of topical gene manipulations during neurodevelopment on the adult brain and its connectivity are greatly facilitated. For many scientific questions, this technique can supplement or even replace the use of transgenic rats and provide a novel technology for behavioral neuroscience.

Generation of Topically Transgenic Rats by In utero Electroporation and In vivo Bioluminescence Screening

Genes can be manipulated during development of the cortex or the hippocampus of the rat via in utero electroporation (IUE) at E16, to enable fast and targeted modifications in neuronal connectivity for later studies of behavior or neuropathology in adult animals. Postnatal in vivo imaging for control of IUE success is performed by bioluminescence of activating co-transfected luciferase.

 In utero electroporation (IUE) is a technique which allows genetic modification of cells in the brain for investigating neuronal development. So far, the ...

Deep Brain Stimulation with Simultaneous fMRI in Rodents

In order to visualize the global and downstream neuronal responses to deep brain stimulation (DBS) at various targets, we have developed a protocol for using blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to image rodents with simultaneous DBS. DBS fMRI presents a number of technical challenges, including accuracy of electrode implantation, MR artifacts created by the electrode, choice of anesthesia and paralytic to minimize any neuronal effects while simultaneously eliminating animal motion, and maintenance of physiological parameters, deviation from which can confound the BOLD signal.&#160;Our laboratory has developed a set of procedures that are capable of overcoming most of these possible issues. For electrical stimulation, a homemade tungsten bipolar microelectrode is used, inserted stereotactically at the stimulation site in the anesthetized subject. In preparation for imaging, rodents are fixed on a plastic headpiece and transferred to the magnet bore. For sedation and paralysis during scanning, a cocktail of dexmedetomidine and pancuronium is continuously infused, along with a minimal dose of isoflurane; this preparation minimizes the BOLD ceiling effect of volatile anesthetics. In this example experiment, stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus (STN) produces BOLD responses which are observed primarily in ipsilateral cortical regions, centered in motor cortex. Simultaneous DBS and fMRI allows the unambiguous modulation of neural circuits dependent on stimulation location and stimulation parameters, and permits observation of neuronal modulations free of regional bias. This technique may be used to explore the downstream effects of modulating neural circuitry at nearly any brain region, with implications for both experimental and clinical DBS.

This protocol describes a standard method for simultaneous functional magnetic resonance imaging and deep brain stimulation in the rodent. The combined use of these experimental tools allows for the exploration of global downstream activity in response to electrical stimulation at virtually any brain target.

In order to visualize the global and downstream neuronal responses to deep brain stimulation (DBS) at various targets, we have developed a protocol for ...

Combining Double Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization with Immunolabelling for Detection of the Expression of Three Genes in Mouse Brain Sections

Detection of gene expression in different types of brain cells e.g., neurons, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, oligodendrocyte precursors and microglia, can be hampered by the lack of specific primary or secondary antibodies for immunostaining. Here we describe a protocol to detect the expression of three different genes in the same brain section using double fluorescence in situ hybridization with two gene-specific probes followed by immunostaining with an antibody of high specificity directed against the protein encoded by a third gene. The Aspartoacyclase (ASPA) gene, mutations of which can lead to a rare human white matter disease - Canavan disease - is thought to be expressed in oligodendrocytes and microglia but not in astrocytes and neurons. However, the precise expression pattern of ASPA in the brain has yet to be established. This protocol has allowed us to determine that ASPA is expressed in a subset of mature oligodendrocytes and it can be generally applied to a wide range of gene expression pattern studies.

Combining Double Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization with Immunolabelling for Detection of the Expression of Three Genes in Mouse Brain Sections

Localizing gene expression to specific cell types can be challenging due to the lack of specific antibodies. Here we describe a protocol for simultaneous triple detection of gene expression by combining double fluorescence RNA in situ hybridization with immunostaining.

Detection of gene expression in different types of brain cells e.g., neurons, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, oligodendrocyte precursors and microglia, can ...

In Utero Electroporation Approaches to Study the Excitability of Neuronal Subpopulations and Single-cell Connectivity

The nervous system is composed of an enormous range of distinct neuronal types. These neuronal subpopulations are characterized by, among other features, their distinct dendritic morphologies, their specific patterns of axonal connectivity, and their selective firing responses. The molecular and cellular mechanisms responsible for these aspects of differentiation during development are still poorly understood.
Here, we describe combined protocols for labeling and characterizing the structural connectivity and excitability of cortical neurons. Modification of the in utero electroporation (IUE) protocol allows the labeling of a sparse population of neurons. This, in turn, enables the identification and tracking of the dendrites and axons of individual neurons, the precise characterization of the laminar location of axonal projections, and morphometric analysis. IUE can also be used to investigate changes in the excitability of wild-type (WT) or genetically modified neurons by combining it with whole-cell recording from acute slices of electroporated brains. These two techniques contribute to a better understanding of the coupling of structural and functional connectivity and of the molecular mechanisms controlling neuronal diversity during development. These developmental processes have important implications on axonal wiring, the functional diversity of neurons, and the biology of cognitive disorders.

In Utero Electroporation Approaches to Study the Excitability of Neuronal Subpopulations and Single-cell Connectivity

This manuscript provides protocols that use in utero electroporation (IUE) to describe the structural connectivity of neurons at the single-cell level and the excitability of fluorescently labeled neurons. Histology is used to characterize dendritic and axonal projections. Whole-cell recording in acute slices is used to investigate excitability.

The nervous system is composed of an enormous range of distinct neuronal types. These neuronal subpopulations are characterized by, among other features, ...

Novel Assay for Cold Nociception in Drosophila Larvae

How organisms sense and respond to noxious temperatures is still poorly understood. Further, the mechanisms underlying sensitization of the sensory machinery, such as in patients experiencing peripheral neuropathy or injury-induced sensitization, are not well characterized. The genetically tractable Drosophila model has been used to study the cells and genes required for noxious heat detection, which has yielded multiple conserved genes of interest. Little is known however about the cells and receptors important for noxious cold sensing. Although, Drosophila does not survive prolonged exposure to cold temperatures (&#8804;10 &#186;C), and will avoid cool, preferring warmer temperatures in behavioral preference assays, how they sense and possibly avoid noxious cold stimuli has only recently been investigated.
Here we describe and characterize the first noxious cold (&#8804;10 &#186;C) behavioral assay in Drosophila. Using this tool and assay, we show an investigator how to qualitatively and quantitatively assess cold nociceptive behaviors. This can be done under normal/healthy culture conditions, or presumably in the context of disease, injury or sensitization. Further, this assay can be applied to larvae selected for desired genotypes, which might impact thermosensation, pain, or nociceptive sensitization. Given that pain is a highly conserved process, using this assay to further study&#160;thermal nociception will likely glean important understanding of pain processes in other species, including vertebrates.

Novel Assay for Cold Nociception in Drosophila Larvae

Here we demonstrate a novel assay to study cold nociception in Drosophila larvae. This assay utilizes a custom-built Peltier probe capable of applying a focal noxious cold stimulus and results in quantifiable cold-specific behaviors. This technique will allow further cellular and molecular dissection of cold nociception.

How organisms sense and respond to noxious temperatures is still poorly understood. Further, the mechanisms underlying sensitization of the sensory ...