Name: robust comparison of protein levels across tissues and throughout development using standardized quantitative western blotting
Uploaded: 2019-04-09T15:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Robust Comparison of Protein Levels Across Tissues and Throughout Development Using Standardized Quantitative Western Blotting at JoVE.com

E.J.N.G. is supported by the Wellcome Trust (grant 106098/Z/14/Z). Other funding has been provided by the SMA Trust (SMA UK Consortium; T.H.G. &#38; Y-T.H.), SMA Europe (T.H.G, D.v.D.H. &#38; E.J.N.G.), the University of Edinburgh DTP in Precision Medicine (T.H.G., L.L. &#38; A.M.M.), and the Euan MacDonald Centre for Motor Neurone Disease Research (T.H.G).

Tissues for this procedure were obtained from animal studies that were approved by the internal ethics committee at the University of Edinburgh and were performed in concordance with institutional and UK Home Office regulations under the authority of relevant personal and project licenses.
NOTE: This protocol has been optimized using standardized, commercially available kits and reagents in order to increase reproducibility (see Table of Materials).
1...

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S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Avoiding+pitfalls+of+internal+controls:+validation+of+reference+genes+for+analysis+by+qRT-PCR+and+Western+blot+throughout+rat+retinal+development.">Avoiding pitfalls of internal controls: validation of reference genes for analysis by qRT-PCR and Western blot throughout rat retinal development.</a> PloS One. 7 (8), e43028 (2012).</li><li>Aghamaleky Sarvestany, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Label-free+quantitative+proteomic+profiling+identifies+disruption+of+ubiquitin+homeostasis+as+a+key+driver+of+Schwann+cell+defects+in+spinal+muscular+atrophy.">Label-free quantitative proteomic profiling identifies disruption of ubiquitin homeostasis as a key driver of Schwann cell defects in spinal muscular atrophy.</a> Journal of Proteome Research. 13 (11), 4546-4557 (2014).</li><li>Fuller, H. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Spinal+Muscular+Atrophy+Patient+iPSC-Derived+Motor+Neurons+Have+Reduced+Expression+of+Proteins+Important+in+Neuronal+Development.">Spinal Muscular Atrophy Patient iPSC-Derived Motor Neurons Have Reduced Expression of Proteins Important in Neuronal Development.</a> Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience. 9, 506 (2015).</li><li>Liu, N. K., Xu, X. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=beta-tubulin+is+a+more+suitable+internal+control+than+beta-actin+in+western+blot+analysis+of+spinal+cord+tissues+after+traumatic+injury.">beta-tubulin is a more suitable internal control than beta-actin in western blot analysis of spinal cord tissues after traumatic injury.</a> Journal of Neurotrauma. 23 (12), 1794-1801 (2006).</li><li>Moritz, C. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tubulin+or+Not+Tubulin:+Heading+Toward+Total+Protein+Staining+as+Loading+Control+in+Western+Blots.">Tubulin or Not Tubulin: Heading Toward Total Protein Staining as Loading Control in Western Blots.</a> Proteomics. 17 (20), (2017).</li><li>Groen, E. J. N., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Temporal+and+tissue-specific+variability+of+SMN+protein+levels+in+mouse+models+of+spinal+muscular+atrophy.">Temporal and tissue-specific variability of SMN protein levels in mouse models of spinal muscular atrophy.</a> Human Molecular Genetics. 27 (16), 2851-2862 (2018).</li><li>Chaytow, H., Huang, Y. T., Gillingwater, T. H., Faller, K. M. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+role+of+survival+motor+neuron+protein+(SMN)+in+protein+homeostasis.">The role of survival motor neuron protein (SMN) in protein homeostasis.</a> Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences. , (2018).</li><li>Groen, E. J. N., Talbot, K., Gillingwater, T. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Advances+in+therapy+for+spinal+muscular+atrophy:+promises+and+challenges.">Advances in therapy for spinal muscular atrophy: promises and challenges.</a> Nature Reviews: Neurology. 14 (4), 214-224 (2018).</li><li>Fitzmaurice, G. M., Laird, N. M., Ware, J. 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With the appropriate experimental design, control measures and statistical analysis, western blotting can be used to make reliable quantitative estimates of protein expression within and between a varied range of biological samples. The protocol we describe in the current manuscript aims to serve as a guideline for researchers looking to use Western blotting to undertake quantitative analysis across larger and more complex groups of samples, by using a combination of fluorescence-based detection methods, total protein lo...

Western blotting is a technique that is commonly used to detect and quantify protein expression, including in tissue homogenates or extracts. Over the years, this technique has led to many advances in both basic and clinical research, where it can be used as a diagnostic tool to identify the presence of disease1,2. Western blotting was first described in 1979 as a method to transfer proteins from polyacrylamide gels to nitrocellulose sheets and subsequently visualize proteins using secondary antibodies that were either radioactively labelled or conjugated to fluorescein or peroxidase3. Through the development of commercially available kits and equipment, Western blotting methods have been increasingly standardized and simplified over the years. Indeed, the technique is now readily performed by scientists with varying backgrounds and levels of experience. However, as with many similar experimental techniques, the outcome of Western blot analyses is easily influenced by choices made in the design and execution of the experiment. It is important, therefore, that the accessibility of standardized Western blotting methods does not obscure the need for careful experimental planning and design. Experimental considerations include, but are not limited to, sample preparation and handling, selection and validation of antibodies for protein detection, and gel-to-membrane transfer efficiency of particularly small or large (&#60;10 or &#62;140 kDa) proteins4,5,6,7,8,9. Protein quality of the original sample plays a significant role in determining the outcome of the subsequent Western blot analysis. As protein can be extracted from a wide variety of samples and sources, including cell lines, tissues from animal models, and post-mortem human tissues, consistency in handling and processing is required to obtain reproducible results. For example, when long-term storage of samples for protein extraction is required, it is important to realize that, although protein is generally stable at -80 &#176;C, differences in protein stability between extracted proteins and intact tissues at -80 &#176;C have been reported10. Moreover, to obtain reproducible estimates of protein quantities, consistent homogenization of samples is crucial. Optimizing different lysis buffers and homogenization methods (e.g., manual homogenization compared to automated methods) may be required before starting a large-scale quantitative experiment.
Normalization strategies to correct for protein loading and quantification variability are essential to obtain robust, quantitative results of protein expression. Housekeeping proteins such as &#946;-actin, &#945;-tubulin, &#946;-tubulin, and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) have traditionally been used to normalize protein levels for quantification. However, normalization to specific housekeeping proteins for quantification purposes has been increasingly criticized over the past few years11,12. For example, the expression of housekeeping proteins can change across different developmental stages13,14, across tissues from the same animal4, and under various disease conditions4,15,16,17. Therefore, the use of specific housekeeping proteins limits the possibilities of making more complex comparisons between protein expression from different tissues, at different timepoints and under varying experimental conditions. An alternative to housekeeping proteins to control for protein loading variation is the use of a total protein stain (TPS) that labels and visualizes all proteins present in a sample. TPS allows signal normalization based on total protein load rather than levels of one specific protein and therefore quantification of TPS signal should be comparable and reproducible regardless of experimental condition, sample type or developmental timepoint. Examples of total protein stains include Ponceau S, stain-free gels, Coomassie R-350, Sypro-Ruby, Epicocconone, Amydo Black, and Cy5 (reviewed in ref. 18). Each of these methods has specific advantages and limitations and method selection depends on the time and tools available as well as the experimental setup4,18.
In addition to using a TPS to correct for within-membrane loading and quantification variability, it may be necessary to compare samples between different membranes, particularly when performing large-scale protein expression analysis. However, variability in factors such as antibody binding efficiency and total protein stain intensity may introduce further variability between protein samples that are analyzed on separate gels and membranes. For robust quantification in this situation, it is therefore necessary to introduce a further normalization step to account for between-membrane variability. This can be achieved by including an internal loading standard on each of the separately analyzed membranes that is kept constant across experiments. This standard can take the form of any protein lysate that can be obtained in sufficient quantities to be used across all membranes included in the experiment. Here, we use a lysate of mouse brain (obtained from 5 day old control mice), as brain is readily homogenized and the obtained protein lysate contains a significant amount of protein at a high concentration. Loading an internal standard in triplicate allows samples on separate membranes to be normalized and compared directly.
Here, we describe a detailed protocol that we have developed to allow us to undertake complex comparisons of protein expression variation across different tissues, mouse models (including disease models), and developmental timepoints19. By combining a fluorescent TPS with the use of an internal loading standard, we were able to overcome existing limitations in the number of samples and experimental conditions that can be compared within a single experiment. This approach expands the use of traditional Western blot techniques, thereby allowing researchers to better explore protein expression across different tissues and samples.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Fine Tipped Gel Loading Tips</td>
			<td>Alpha Laboratories</td>
			<td>GL20057SNTL</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Halt Protease Inhibitor Cocktail, EDTA-free 100x 5mL</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>78437</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Handheld homogeniser&#160;</td>
			<td>VWR Collection</td>
			<td>431-0100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>iBlot 2 Gel Transfer Device</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>IB21001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>iBlot Transfer Stack, PVDF, regular size</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>IB401031</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Image Studio Lite</td>
			<td>Licor</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Free download from https://www.licor.com/bio/products/software/image_studio_lite/</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>IRDye 800CW secondary antibodies</td>
			<td>Licor</td>
			<td>--</td>
			<td>Select appropriate secondary antibody that is specific against host of primary antibody.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micro BCA Protein Assay Kit</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>23235</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Novex Sharp Pre-stained Protein Standard</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>LC5800</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NuPAGE 4-12% Bis-Tris Protein Gels, 1.0 mm, 15-well</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>NP0323BOX</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NuPAGE LDS Sample Buffer (4X)</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>NP0007</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NuPAGE MOPS SDS Running Buffer (20X)</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>NP0001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Odyssey Blocking Buffer</td>
			<td>Licor</td>
			<td>927-40000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Purified Mouse anti-SMN (survival motor neuron) monoclonal antibody</td>
			<td>BD Transduction Laboratories</td>
			<td>610646</td>
			<td>Is used extensively in the SMN/SMA literature and gives consistent results regardsless of lot number</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>REVERT Total Protein Stain, 250 mL&#160;</td>
			<td>Licor</td>
			<td>926-11021&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>REVERT Wash Solution&#160;</td>
			<td>Licor</td>
			<td>926-11012&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RIPA Lysis and Extraction Buffer</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>89900</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>XCell&#160;SureLock Mini-Cell</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>EI0001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

robust comparison of protein levels across tissues and throughout development using standardized quantitative western blotting

Western blotting is a technique that is commonly used to detect and quantify protein expression. Over the years, this technique has led to many advances in both basic and clinical research. However, as with many similar experimental techniques, the outcome of Western blot analyses is easily influenced by choices made in the design and execution of the experiment. Specific housekeeping proteins have traditionally been used to normalize protein levels for quantification, however, these have a number of limitations and have therefore been increasingly criticized over the past few years. Here, we describe a detailed protocol that we have developed to allow us to undertake complex comparisons of protein expression variation across different tissues, mouse models (including disease models), and developmental timepoints. By using a fluorescent total protein stain and introducing the use of an internal loading standard, it is possible to overcome existing limitations in the number of samples that can be compared within experiments and systematically compare protein levels across a range of experimental conditions. This approach expands the use of traditional western blot techniques, thereby allowing researchers to better explore protein expression across different tissues and samples.

We include examples of the use of TPS and an internal standard to facilitate comparisons of protein levels across tissues and time points. Figure 1 shows results from Western blotting on protein extracted from tissues obtained from neonatal (postnatal day 5) in comparison to adult mice (10-week old). TPS and Smn immunoblot are shown in Figure 1A, C. Quantification of fluorescence intensity of the TPS was achieved...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Robust Comparison of Protein Levels Across Tissues and Throughout Development Using Standardized Quantitative Western Blotting at JoVE.com

Robust Comparison of Protein Levels Across Tissues and Throughout Development Using Standardized Quantitative Western Blotting

This method describes a robust and reproducible approach for the comparison of protein levels in different tissues and at different developmental timepoints using a standardized quantitative western blotting approach.

Western blotting is a technique that is commonly used to detect and quantify protein expression. Over the years, this technique has led to many advances ...

This protocol can be used to address important questions in fundamental and clinical research by looking at protein expression across different tissues and time points. To perform reliable quantitative Western blotting, we combine a fluorescent total protein stain with an internal loading control. This overcomes limitations that arise when comparing various tissues across experimental conditions.To extract proteins from snap-frozen cell or tissue samples, thaw the minus-80-degree samples on ice before washing the samples as appropriate, according to the table. Using a handheld electric homogenizer with a polypropylene pestle, homogenize the washed samples, rinsing the pestle in double-distilled water and drying with a clean tissue between samples. Leave the samples on ice for 10 minutes, followed by centrifugation.Then, transfer the protein-sample-containing supernatant to a new tube on ice without disturbing the pellet. For quantification of the protein concentration, set up bovine serum albumin standards at increasing concentrations in triplicate, and add one microliter of each protein sample in duplicate to the appropriate wells of a 96-well optical plate. Incubate the protein on a 60-degree-Celsius heat block for 10 minutes or longer if the protein concentration is expected to be low and measure the absorption at 560 nanometers on a plate reader.Export the plate reader measurements and calculate the protein concentration by comparing the average absorbance values of each sample to a standard curve obtained using the protein standard. To normalize the amount of protein, prepare dilutions of the protein samples in sample buffer and ultra-pure water and incubate the samples in a 70-degree-Celsius heat block for 10 minutes. Then, place the samples on ice before vortexing and briefly centrifuging.For electrophoresis, set up a precast four to 12%Bis-Tris gradient gel in the gel electrophoresis chamber system and load 3.5 microliters of a protein standard into the well. When using an internal standard for between-membrane normalization, load an amount that is equal to the other samples into the first three wells next to the protein ladder and load 30 micrograms of each sample into the remaining wells. Then, run the samples through the stacking gel at 80 volts for 10 minutes followed by 150 volts for an additional 45 to 60 minutes.At the end of the electrophoresis, to assemble the transfer stack, place the protein gel onto the bottom stack containing the polyvinylidene difluoride membrane followed by the filter paper. Use the blotting roller to remove any air bubbles and place the top stack on the top of the filter paper before rolling the stack again to remove air bubbles. Transfer the whole stack into the transfer device with the electrode on the left side of the device and place the gel sponge on top of the stack so that the sponge is aligned with the corresponding electrical contacts on the device.After closing the lid, select and start the appropriate program. At the end of the program, cut the membrane to the gel size and wash the cut membrane quickly with double-distilled water before continuing with the total protein stain. For total protein staining, roll the membrane into a 50-milliliter tube with the protein side facing inwards and label the membrane with five milliliters of protein stain solution on a roller for five minutes at room temperature in a fume hood.At the end of the incubation, wash the membrane quickly with five milliliters of wash solution, returning the tube briefly to the roller between washes, followed by a brief rinse with ultra-pure water. Add three milliliters of blocking buffer to the membrane and return the membrane to the roller for 30 minutes at room temperature. Replace the blocking buffer with the primary antibody of interest at the appropriate optimized concentration and incubate the membrane on the roller overnight at four degrees Celsius.The next day, wash the membrane six times for five minutes with five milliliters of fresh PBS per wash on the roller at room temperature. After the last wash, incubate the membrane with the appropriate secondary antibody solution on the roller for one hour at room temperature followed by three washes for 30 minutes per wash. After the last wash, dry the membrane and use aluminum foil to keep the membrane protected from light.For image acquisition, place the membrane on the scanner with the protein side facing down and select the scanning area in the software. Then, acquire images in both channels and export the images to an appropriate image analysis program. Display the 700-nanometer channel to show the total protein staining result and Select Analysis and Draw Rectangle to define the area of interest for normalization.Then, copy and paste the first rectangle area onto each individual sample to ensure the defined region is the same size for all of the analyzed lanes. To quantify the protein concentration in each lane, copy the results from both the total protein stain and the protein of interest to a spreadsheet program and determine the highest total protein stain signal. Then, divide each total protein stain signal value by this value to obtain the normalized protein loading value and divide the 800-nanometer signal value from each individual sample by its corresponding normalized protein value to calculate the relative protein expression ratio in different samples.In these representative Western blots, proteins extracted from tissues obtained from post-natal day five mice are compared to proteins extracted from 10-week-old adult mice. Quantification of the fluorescence intensity of the total protein stain was achieved by measuring the fluorescence intensity inside the rectangle box on each lane. When whole lanes are analyzed, the fluorescence intensity remains relatively similar across samples, indicating that using the total protein stain for normalization is suitable for this purpose.The fluorescent total protein stain can also be used to compare protein levels at different developmental time points. For example, although survival motor neuron protein levels clearly decrease with age in mice, the total protein stained quantification remains constant. The use of internal standards, fluorescence-based normalization, and adequate statistics increases the robustness of complex protein expression analysis across different conditions.This protocol adds to traditional Western blot techniques, overcoming the issues of appropriate loading controls and comparisons across experimental batches, and providing flexibilities for protein expression analysis. This approach can be extended to comparing protein expression under other experimental conditions.

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Biochemistry

Using Scaffold Liposomes to Reconstitute Lipid-proximal Protein-protein Interactions In Vitro

Studies of integral membrane proteins in vitro are frequently complicated by the presence of a hydrophobic transmembrane domain. Further complicating these studies, reincorporation of detergent-solubilized membrane proteins into liposomes is a stochastic process where protein topology is impossible to enforce. This paper offers an alternative method to these challenging techniques that utilizes a liposome-based scaffold. Protein solubility is enhanced by deletion of the transmembrane domain, and these amino acids are replaced with a tethering moiety, such as a His-tag. This tether interacts with an anchoring group (Ni2+ coordinated by nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA(Ni2+)) for His-tagged proteins), which enforces a uniform protein topology at the surface of the liposome. An example is presented wherein the interaction between Dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1) with an integral membrane protein, Mitochondrial Fission Factor (Mff), was investigated using this scaffold liposome method. In this work, we have demonstrated the ability of Mff to efficiently recruit soluble Drp1 to the surface of liposomes, which stimulated its GTPase activity. Moreover, Drp1 was able to tubulate the Mff-decorated lipid template in the presence of specific lipids. This example demonstrates the effectiveness of scaffold liposomes using structural and functional assays and highlights the role of Mff in regulating Drp1 activity.

Using Scaffold Liposomes to Reconstitute Lipid-proximal Protein-protein Interactions In Vitro

This paper describes a method for assessing the interactions and assemblies of integral membrane proteins in vitro with various partner factors in a lipid-proximal environment.

Studies of integral membrane proteins in vitro are frequently complicated by the presence of a hydrophobic transmembrane domain. Further complicating ...

SorLA and CLC:CLF-1-dependent Downregulation of CNTFR&#945; as Demonstrated by Western Blotting, Inhibition of Lysosomal Enzymes, and Immunocytochemistry

The heterodimeric cytokine Cardiotrophin-like Cytokine:Cytokine-like Factor-1 (CLC:CLF-1) targets the glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored CNTFR&#945; to form a trimeric complex that subsequently recruits glycoprotein 130/Leukemia Inhibitory Factor Receptor-&#946; (gp130/LIFR&#946;) for signaling. Both CLC and CNTFR&#945; are necessary for signaling but so far CLF-1 has only been known as a putative facilitator of CLC secretion. However, it has recently been shown that CLF-1 contains three binding sites: one for CLC; one for CNTFR&#945; (that may promote assembly of the trimeric complex); and one for the endocytic receptor sorLA. The latter site provides high affinity binding of CLF-1, CLC:CLF-1, as well as the trimeric (CLC:CLF-1:CNTFR&#945;) complex to sorLA, and in sorLA-expressing cells the soluble ligands CLF-1 and CLC:CLF-1 are rapidly taken up and internalized. In cells co-expressing CNTFR&#945; and sorLA, CNTFR&#945; first binds CLC:CLF-1 to form a membrane-associated trimeric complex, but it also connects to sorLA via the free sorLA-binding site in CLF-1. As a result, CNTFR&#945;, which has no capacity for endocytosis on its own, is tugged along and internalized by the sorLA-mediated endocytosis of CLC:CLF-1.
The present protocol describes the experimental procedures used to demonstrate i) the sorLA-mediated and CLC:CLF-1-dependent downregulation of surface-membrane CNTFR&#945; expression; ii) sorLA-mediated endocytosis and lysosomal targeting of CNTFR&#945;; and iii) the lowered cellular response to CLC:CLF-1-stimulation upon sorLA-mediated downregulation of CNTFR&#945;.

The present protocol describes how Western blotting and immunocytochemistry combined with inhibition of lysosomal enzymes can be used to demonstrate the downregulation of Ciliary Neurotrophic Factor Receptor-&#945; (CNTFR&#945;), which is conveyed by the interaction between Cytokine-like Factor-1 (CLF-1) and the endocytic receptor sorLA.

The heterodimeric cytokine Cardiotrophin-like Cytokine:Cytokine-like Factor-1 (CLC:CLF-1) targets the glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored ...

Enhanced Sample Multiplexing of Tissues Using Combined Precursor Isotopic Labeling and Isobaric Tagging (cPILOT)

There is an increasing demand to analyze many biological samples for disease understanding and biomarker discovery. Quantitative proteomics strategies that allow simultaneous measurement of multiple samples have become widespread and greatly reduce experimental costs and times. Our laboratory developed a technique called combined precursor isotopic labeling and isobaric tagging (cPILOT), which enhances sample multiplexing of traditional isotopic labeling or isobaric tagging approaches. Global cPILOT can be applied to samples originating from cells, tissues, bodily fluids, or whole organisms and gives information on relative protein abundances across different sample conditions. cPILOT works by 1) using low pH buffer conditions to selectively dimethylate peptide N-termini and 2) using high pH buffer conditions to label primary amines of lysine residues with commercially-available isobaric reagents (see Table of Materials/Reagents). The degree of sample multiplexing available is dependent on the number of precursor labels used and the isobaric tagging reagent. Here, we present a 12-plex analysis using light and heavy dimethylation combined with six-plex isobaric reagents to analyze 12 samples from mouse tissues in a single analysis. Enhanced multiplexing is helpful for reducing experimental time and cost and more importantly, allowing comparison across many sample conditions (biological replicates, disease stage, drug treatments, genotypes, or longitudinal time-points) with less experimental bias and error. In this work, the global cPILOT approach is used to analyze brain, heart, and liver tissues across biological replicates from an Alzheimer&#39;s disease mouse model and wild-type controls. Global cPILOT can be applied to study other biological processes and adapted to increase sample multiplexing to greater than 20 samples.

Enhanced Sample Multiplexing of Tissues Using Combined Precursor Isotopic Labeling and Isobaric Tagging cPILOT

Combined precursor isotopic labeling and isobaric tagging (cPILOT) is a quantitative proteomics strategy that enhances sample multiplexing capabilities of isobaric tags. This protocol describes the application of cPILOT to tissues from an Alzheimer's disease mouse model and wild-type controls.

There is an increasing demand to analyze many biological samples for disease understanding and biomarker discovery. Quantitative proteomics strategies ...

A Western Blotting Protocol for Small Numbers of Hematopoietic Stem Cells

Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) are rare cells, with the mouse bone marrow containing only ~25,000 phenotypic long term repopulating HSCs. A Western blotting protocol was optimized and suitable for the analysis of small numbers of HSCs (500 - 15,000 cells). Phenotypic HSCs were purified, accurately counted, and directly lysed in Laemmli sample buffer. Lysates containing equal numbers of cells were analyzed by sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE), and the blot was prepared and processed following standard Western blotting protocols. Using this protocol, 2,000 - 5,000 HSCs can be routinely analyzed, and in some cases data can be obtained from as few as 500 cells, compared to the 20,000 to 40,000 cells reported in most publications. This protocol should be generally applicable to other hematopoietic cells, and enables the routine analysis of small numbers of cells using standard laboratory procedures.

A standard Western blotting protocol was optimized for analyzing as few as 500 hematopoietic stem or progenitor cells. Optimization involves careful handling of the cell sample, limiting transfers between tubes, and directly lysing the cells in Laemmli sample buffer.

Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) are rare cells, with the mouse bone marrow containing only ~25,000 phenotypic long term repopulating HSCs. A Western ...

High Throughput, Absolute Determination of the Content of a Selected Protein at Tissue Levels Using Quantitative Dot Blot Analysis (QDB)

Lacking a convenient, quantitative, high throughput immunoblot method for absolute determination of the content of a specific protein at cellular and tissue level significantly hampers the progress in proteomic research. Results derived from currently available immunoblot techniques are also relative, preventing any efforts to combine independent studies with a large-scale analysis of protein samples. In this study, we demonstrate the process of quantitative dot blot analysis (QDB) to achieve absolute quantification in a high throughput format. Using a commercially available protein standard, we are able to determine the absolute content of capping actin protein, gelsolin-like (CAPG) in protein samples prepared from three different mouse tissues (kidney, spleen, and prostate) together with a detailed explanation of the experimental details. We propose the QDB analysis as a convenient, quantitative, high throughput immunoblot method of absolute quantification of individual proteins at the cellular and tissue level. This method will substantially aid biomarker validation and pathway verification in various areas of biological and biomedical research.

High Throughput, Absolute Determination of the Content of a Selected Protein at Tissue Levels Using Quantitative Dot Blot Analysis QDB

Here we demonstrate a detailed process of quantitative dot blot analysis (QDB) by determining the absolute content of a targeted protein, capping actin protein, gelsolin-like (CAPG), in three different mouse tissues. We demonstrate a high throughput, convenient, quantitative immunoblot technique for biomarker validation at the cellular and tissue level.

Lacking a convenient, quantitative, high throughput immunoblot method for absolute determination of the content of a specific protein at cellular and ...

Identification of Functional Protein Regions Through Chimeric Protein Construction

The goal of this protocol encompasses the design of chimeric proteins in which distinct regions of a protein are replaced by their corresponding sequences in a structurally similar protein, in order to determine the functional importance of these regions. Such chimeras are generated by means of a nested PCR protocol using overlapping DNA fragments and adequately designed primers, followed by their expression within a mammalian system to ensure native secondary structure and post-translational modifications. 
The functional role of a distinct region is then indicated by a loss of activity of the chimera in an appropriate readout assay. In consequence, regions harboring a set of critical amino acids are identified, which can be further screened by complementary techniques (e.g. site-directed mutagenesis) to increase molecular resolution. Although limited to cases in which a structurally related protein with differing functions can be found, chimeric proteins have been successfully employed to identify critical binding regions in proteins such as cytokines and cytokine receptors. This method is particularly suitable in cases in which the protein's functional regions are not well defined, and constitutes a valuable first step in directed evolution approaches to narrow down the regions of interest and reduce the screening effort involved.

Structurally related proteins frequently exert distinct biological functions. The exchange of equivalent regions of these proteins in order to create chimeric proteins constitutes an innovative approach to identify critical protein regions that are responsible for their functional divergence.

The goal of this protocol encompasses the design of chimeric proteins in which distinct regions of a protein are replaced by their corresponding sequences ...

Characterization at the Molecular Level using Robust Biochemical Approaches of a New Kinase Protein

Extensive whole genome sequencing has identified many Open Reading Frames (ORFs) providing many potential proteins. These proteins may have important roles for the cell and may unravel new cellular processes. Among proteins, kinases are major actors as they belong to cell signaling pathways and have the ability to switch on or off many processes crucial to the fate of the cell, such as cell growth, division, differentiation, motility, and death.
In this study, we focused on a new potential kinase protein, LIMK2-1. We demonstrated its existence by Western Blot using a specific antibody. We evaluated its interaction with an upstream regulating protein using coimmunoprecipitation experiments. Coimmunoprecipitation is a very powerful technique able to detect the interaction between two target proteins. It may also be used to detect new partners of a bait protein. The bait protein may be purified either via a tag engineered to its sequence or via an antibody specifically targeting it. These protein complexes may then be separated by SDS-PAGE (Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate PolyAcrylamide Gel) and identified using mass spectrometry. Immunoprecipitated LIMK2-1 was also used to test its kinase activity in vitro by &#947;[32P] ATP labeling. This well-established assay may use many different substrates, and mutated versions of the bait may be used to assess the role of specific residues. The effects of pharmacological agents may also be evaluated since this technique is both highly sensitive and quantitative. Nonetheless, radioactivity handling requires particular caution. Kinase activity may also be assessed with specific antibodies targeting the phospho group of the modified amino acid. These kinds of antibodies are not commercially available for all the phospho modified residues.

We characterized a new kinase protein using robust biochemical approaches: Western Blot analysis with a dedicated specific antibody on different cell lines and tissues, interactions by coimmunoprecipitation experiments, kinase activity detected by Western Blot using a phospho-specific antibody and by &#947;[32P] ATP labeling.

Extensive whole genome sequencing has identified many Open Reading Frames (ORFs) providing many potential proteins. These proteins may have important ...

Use of Microscale Thermophoresis to Measure Protein-Lipid Interactions

The ability to determine the binding affinity of lipids to proteins is an essential part of understanding protein-lipid interactions in membrane trafficking, signal transduction and cytoskeletal remodeling. Classic tools for measuring such interactions include surface plasmon resonance (SPR) and isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC). While powerful tools, these approaches have setbacks. ITC requires large amounts of purified protein as well as lipids, which can be costly and difficult to produce. Furthermore, ITC as well as SPR are very time consuming, which could add significantly to the cost of performing these experiments. One way to bypass these restrictions is to use the relatively new technique of microscale thermophoresis (MST). MST is fast and cost effective using small amounts of sample to obtain a saturation curve for a given binding event. There currently are two types of MST systems available. One type of MST requires labeling with a fluorophore in the blue or red spectrum. The second system relies on the intrinsic fluorescence of aromatic amino acids in the UV range. Both systems detect the movement of molecules in response to localized induction of heat from an infrared laser. Each approach has its advantages and disadvantages. Label-free MST can use untagged native proteins; however, many analytes, including pharmaceuticals, fluoresce in the UV range, which can interfere with determination of accurate KD values. In comparison, labeled MST allows for a greater diversity of measurable pairwise interactions utilizing fluorescently labeled probes attached to ligands with measurable absorbances in the visible range as opposed to UV, limiting the potential for interfering signals from analytes.

Microscale thermophoresis obtains binding constants quickly at low material cost. Either labeled or label free microscale thermophoresis is commercially available; however, label free thermophoresis is not capable of the diversity of interaction measurements that can be performed using fluorescent labels. We provide a protocol for labeled thermophoresis measurements.

The ability to determine the binding affinity of lipids to proteins is an essential part of understanding protein-lipid interactions in membrane ...

Ultra-High-Speed Western Blot using Immunoreaction Enhancing Technology

A western blot (also known as an immunoblot) is a canonical method for biomedical research. It is commonly used to determine the relative size and abundance of specific proteins as well as post-translational protein modifications. This technique has a rich history and remains in widespread use due to its simplicity. However, the western blotting procedure famously takes hours, even days, to complete, with a critical bottleneck being the long incubation times that limit its throughput. These incubation steps are required due to the slow diffusion of antibodies from the bulk solution to the immobilized antigens on the membrane: the antibody concentration near the membrane is much lower than the bulk concentration. Here, we present an innovation that dramatically reduces these incubation intervals by improving antigen binding via cyclic draining and replenishing (CDR) of the antibody solution. We also utilized an immunoreaction enhancing technology to preserve the sensitivity of the assay. A combination of the CDR method with a commercial immunoreaction enhancing agent boosted the output signal and substantially reduced the antibody incubation time. The resulting ultra-high-speed western blot can be accomplished in 20 minutes without any loss in sensitivity. This method can be applied to western blots using both chemiluminescent and fluorescent detection. This simple protocol allows researchers to better explore the analysis of protein expression in many samples.

An ultra-high-speed western blotting technique is developed by improving the kinetics of antigen-antibody binding through cyclic draining and replenishing (CDR) technology in conjunction with an immunoreaction enhancing agent.

A western blot (also known as an immunoblot) is a canonical method for biomedical research. It is commonly used to determine the relative size and ...

A Robust Single-Particle Cryo-Electron Microscopy (cryo-EM) Processing Workflow with cryoSPARC, RELION, and Scipion

Recent advances in both instrumentation and image processing software have made single-particle cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) the preferred method for structural biologists to determine high-resolution structures of a wide variety of macromolecules. Multiple software suites are available to new and expert users for image processing and structure calculation, which streamline the same basic workflow: movies acquired by the microscope detectors undergo correction for beam-induced motion and contrast transfer function (CTF) estimation. Next, particle images are selected and extracted from averaged movie frames for iterative 2D and 3D classification, followed by 3D reconstruction, refinement, and validation. Because various software packages employ different algorithms and require varying levels of expertise to operate, the 3D maps they generate often differ in quality and resolution. Thus, users regularly transfer data between a variety of programs for optimal results. This paper provides a guide for users to navigate a workflow across the popular software packages: cryoSPARC v3, RELION-3, and Scipion 3 to obtain a near-atomic resolution structure of the adeno-associated virus (AAV). We first detail an image processing pipeline with cryoSPARC v3, as its efficient algorithms and easy-to-use GUI allow users to quickly arrive at a 3D map. In the next step, we use PyEM and in-house scripts to convert and transfer particle coordinates from the best quality 3D reconstruction obtained in cryoSPARC v3 to RELION-3 and Scipion 3 and recalculate 3D maps. Finally, we outline steps for further refinement and validation of the resultant structures by integrating algorithms from RELION-3 and Scipion 3. In this article, we describe how to effectively utilize three processing platforms to create a single and robust workflow applicable to a variety of data sets for high-resolution structure determination.

A Robust Single-Particle Cryo-Electron Microscopy cryo-EM Processing Workflow with cryoSPARC, RELION, and Scipion

This article describes how to effectively utilize three cryo-EM processing platforms, i.e., cryoSPARC v3, RELION-3, and Scipion 3, to create a single and robust workflow applicable to a variety of single-particle data sets for high-resolution structure determination.

Recent advances in both instrumentation and image processing software have made single-particle cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) the preferred method ...