Name: f&#246;rster resonance energy transfer measurements in living plant cells
Uploaded: 2021-06-28T15:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about FÃ¶rster Resonance Energy Transfer Measurements in Living Plant Cells at JoVE.com

The experiments were performed at the Light Microscopy Technology Platform (LiMiTec) of the Faculty of Biology, Bielefeld University. This work has been funded by Bielefeld University.

NOTE: For the following protocol, transient transfection of protoplasts was performed, as described previously12. A brief description is given below.
1. Transient transfection of protoplasts
<ol>
	<li>Cut ~4 g of healthy leaves of Arabidopsis thaliana ecotype Columbia into 1 mm slices and transfer them to 20 mL of enzyme solution (1.5% cellulase; 0.4% macerozyme; 0.1% bovine serum albumin Fraction V; 0.4 M mannitol; 20 mM KCl; 20 mM 2-(N-morpholino)e...

<ol>
	<li>Lakowicz, J. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Principles of Fluorescent Spectroscopy. Third Edition. , (2006).</li><li>Clegg, R. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=F&#246;rster+resonance+energy+transfer-+FRET+what+it+is,+why+do+it,+and+how+it's+done.">F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer- FRET what it is, why do it, and how it's done.</a> Laboratory Techniques in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. 33, 1-57 (2009).</li><li>Vogel, S. S., Nguyen, T. A., vander Meer, B. W., Blank, P. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+impact+of+heterogeneity+and+dark+acceptor+states+on+FRET:+implications+for+using+fluorescent+protein+donors+and+acceptors.">The impact of heterogeneity and dark acceptor states on FRET: implications for using fluorescent protein donors and acceptors.</a> PLoS ONE. 7, 49593 (2012).</li><li>M&#252;ller, S. M., Galliardt, H., Schneider, J., Barisas, B. G., Seidel, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Quantification+of+F&#246;rster+resonance+energy+transfer+by+monitoring+sensitized+emission+in+living+plant+cells.">Quantification of F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer by monitoring sensitized emission in living plant cells.</a> Frontiers in Plant Science. 4, 413 (2013).</li><li>Gadella, T. W. J., vander Krogt, G. N., Bisseling, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=GFP-based+FRET-microscopy+in+living+plant+cells.">GFP-based FRET-microscopy in living plant cells.</a> Trends in Plant Science. 4, 287-291 (1999).</li><li>Van Rheenen, J., Langeslag, M., Jalink, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Correcting+confocal+acquisition+to+optimize+imaging+of+fluorescence+resonance+energy+transfer+by+sensitized+emission.">Correcting confocal acquisition to optimize imaging of fluorescence resonance energy transfer by sensitized emission.</a> Biophysical Journal. 86, 2517-2529 (2004).</li><li>Seidel, T., Golldack, D., Dietz, K. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mapping+of+C-termini+of+V-ATPase+subunits+by+in+vivo-FRET+measurements.">Mapping of C-termini of V-ATPase subunits by in vivo-FRET measurements.</a> FEBS Letters. 579, 4374-4382 (2005).</li><li>Seidel, T., Schnitzer, D., Golldack, D., Sauer, M., Dietz, K. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Organelle-specific+iso-enzymes+of+plant+V-ATPase+as+revealed+by+in+vivo-FRET.">Organelle-specific iso-enzymes of plant V-ATPase as revealed by in vivo-FRET.</a> BMC Cell Biology. 9, 28 (2008).</li><li>Schnitzer, D., Seidel, T., Sander, T., Golldack, D., Dietz, K. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+cellular+energization+state+affects+peripheral+stalk+stability+of+plant+vacuolar+H+-ATPase+and+impairs+vacuolar+acidification.">The cellular energization state affects peripheral stalk stability of plant vacuolar H+-ATPase and impairs vacuolar acidification.</a> Plant Cell Physiology. 52, 946-956 (2011).</li><li>Roshchina, V. V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Vital+autofluorescence:+application+to+the+study+of+plant+living+cells.">Vital autofluorescence: application to the study of plant living cells.</a> International Journal of Spectroscopy. 2012, 124672 (2012).</li><li>Holtorf, S., Apel, K., Bohlmann, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comparison+of+different+constitutive+and+inducible+promoters+for+the+overexpression+of+transgenes+in+Arabidopsis+thaliana.">Comparison of different constitutive and inducible promoters for the overexpression of transgenes in Arabidopsis thaliana.</a> Plant Molecular Biology. 29, 637-646 (1995).</li><li>Seidel, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Colocalization+and+FRET-analysis+of+subunits+c+and+a+of+the+vacuolar+H+-ATPase+in+living+plant+cells.">Colocalization and FRET-analysis of subunits c and a of the vacuolar H+-ATPase in living plant cells.</a> Journal of Biotechnology. 112 (1-2), 165-175 (2004).</li><li>Beemiller, P., Hoppe, A. D., Swanson, J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase-dependent+signal+transition+regulates+ARF1+and+ARF6+during+FC&#947;+receptor-mediated+phagocytosis.">A phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase-dependent signal transition regulates ARF1 and ARF6 during FC&#947; receptor-mediated phagocytosis.</a> PLoS Biology. 4, 162 (2006).</li><li>Lambert, T. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=FPbase:+a+community-editable+fluorescent+protein+database.">FPbase: a community-editable fluorescent protein database.</a> Nature Methods. 16, 277-278 (2019).</li></ol>

Donor quenching and sensitized acceptor emission are characterized by a linear relationship that allows for either donor- or acceptor-based calculation of FRET. The corresponding factors of linearity are called either G factor (donor to acceptor) or xi (acceptor to donor), which are reciprocal values4. Measuring FRET between fluorescent proteins by fluorescence microscopy often requires corrections for DSBT and ASBT due to the broad absorption and emission spectra of the fluorescent proteins. Howe...

F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer ((F)RET) is typically observed by fluorescence spectroscopy, although the process itself is not limited to occur between fluorophores. The underlying dipole-dipole coupling simply requires a light-emitting donor molecule and a light-absorbing acceptor. This is derived from the required spectral overlap integral J of the normalized donor emission and acceptor absorbance spectra1. However, because RET competes with fluorescence, the energy transfer becomes measurable by alterations in fluorescence emission: RET induces donor quenching and sensitized acceptor emission.
Fluorophore-based RET has been termed fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) to separate it from bioluminescence resonance energy transfer (BRET). RET depends strongly on the distance between donor and acceptor, which is widely in the range of 0.5-10 nm2 and thus, in the same range as the dimensions of proteins and their complexes. Second, RET depends on the dipole-dipole orientation kappa squared. Combined with the fact that rotational freedom of protein-bound fluorophores can be neglected due to the molecular weight and the slow rotational relaxation, RET allows for the analysis of conformational alterations3.
The so-called F&#246;rster radius is based on the spectral overlap integral and the wavelength range of the overlap, so that red light-absorbing chromophores result in longer F&#246;rster radii than blue light-absorbing dyes. As the dynamic range of FRET measurements is limited by 0.5 &#215; R0 and 1.5 &#215; R0, the FRET pair ECFP-EYFP has a dynamic range of 2.5-7.3 nm due to its R0 of 4.9 nm4.
The brightness of a fluorophore is given by the product of its molar extinction coefficient and its quantum yield. For FRET measurements, it is advantageous to choose fluorophores of nearly similar brightness. This enhances the detection of donor quenching and sensitized acceptor emission. It also favors the calibration of the microscopy system. Looking at the frequently used FRET pairs of cyan and fluorescent proteins, the lower brightness of the cyan fluorescent proteins becomes obvious (Figure 1A).
However, the lifetime of the acceptor must be lower than the lifetime of the donor, ensuring the availability of the acceptor for energy transfer. If the lifetime of the acceptor exceeds the lifetime of the donor, the acceptor might still be in the excited state when the donor is excited again. Advanced cyan fluorescent proteins such as mTurquoise show an extended lifetime and thus contribute to an increased probability of FRET (Figure1B). The probability of FRET also depends on the molar extinction coefficient of the acceptor.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>8-well slides</td>
			<td>Ibidi</td>
			<td>80821</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Immersion oil Immersol&#160; W2010</td>
			<td>Zeiss</td>
			<td>444969-0000-000</td>
			<td>refraction index of water</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LSM 1: AxioObserver with LSM 780 scan head, confocal laser scanning microscope</td>
			<td>Zeiss</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LSM 2: AxioObserver with LSM 5 scan head, confocal laser scanning microscope</td>
			<td>Zeiss</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

f&#246;rster resonance energy transfer measurements in living plant cells

Sensitized emission-based F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET) experiments are easily done but depend on the microscopic setup. Confocal laser scanning microscopes have become a workhorse for biologists. Commercial systems offer high flexibility in laser power adjustment and detector sensitivity and often combine different detectors to obtain the perfect image. However, the comparison of intensity-based data from different experiments and setups is often impossible due to this flexibility. Biologist-friendly procedures are of advantage and allow for simple and reliable adjustment of laser and detector settings. 
Furthermore, as FRET experiments in living cells are affected by the variability in protein expression and donor-acceptor ratios, protein expression levels must be considered for data evaluation. Described here is a simple protocol for reliable and reproducible FRET measurements, including routines for the estimation of protein expression and adjustment of laser intensity and detector settings. Data evaluation will be performed by calibration with a fluorophore fusion of known FRET efficiency. To improve simplicity, correction factors have been compared that have been obtained in cells and by measuring recombinant fluorescent proteins.

Adjustment of the confocal laser-scanning microscope 
The laser adjustment revealed a linear increase of emission with increasing laser intensity (Figure 2 and Table 1). As expected for argon-ion lasers, the emission of the 514 nm line was much higher than the emission of the 458 nm line, as evidenced by a steeper slope. For subsequent experiments, laser power of 4.5% and 6.5% was chosen for the 514 nm line and the 458 nm line, respectively. This result...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about FÃ¶rster Resonance Energy Transfer Measurements in Living Plant Cells at JoVE.com

F&amp;#246;rster Resonance Energy Transfer Measurements in Living Plant Cells

A protocol is provided for setting up a standard confocal laser-scanning microscope for in vivo F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer measurements, followed by data evaluation.

F&#246;rster Resonance Energy Transfer Measurements in Living Plant Cells

Sensitized emission-based F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET) experiments are easily done but depend on the microscopic setup. Confocal laser ...

The protocol provides a simple procedure to make FRET experiments by sensitized emissions more reproducible and comparable. The main advantage of FRET are measurements in real time so that dynamic processes can be addressed. For laser adjustment using a transmission photomultiplier, place the eight-well slide containing the transfected protoplasts under the microscope.After selecting an empty well, choose line scanning mode and histogram view, decrease the laser intensity to the minimum and adjust the detector gain to detectable background noise. Next, increase the laser intensity in steps of 0.5%while recording the corresponding signal. For laser adjustment using the reflective mode, select an empty well, then apply a reflection filter.Switch on the reflection mode and ensure that the detector wavelength range covers the wavelength of the laser. Choose the line scanning mode and histogram view, decrease the laser intensity to the minimum and adjust the detector gain to detectable background noise. Next, move the objective to the lowest position before moving it back up until the reflection of the coverslip is visible, then increase the laser intensity in steps of 0.5%while recording the corresponding signal.For data evaluation, tabulate and sort the data by signal intensities, then plot the signal intensities against the relative laser power and choose the laser intensities resulting in a similar signal intensity. For adjustment of the photomultipliers, select an empty well and apply a reflection filter, switch to reflection mode and ensure that the detector wavelength range covers the wavelength of the laser. Choose the line scanning mode and histogram view, decrease the detector gain to half the maximum and adjust the laser intensity to detectable background noise.Next, move the objective to the lowest position before moving it back up until the reflection of the coverslip is visible, then increase the detector gain in 50 to 100 volt steps and record the corresponding signal. For data evaluation, plot the intensity against the detector gain for each detector, then choose the individual detector gains to obtain similar sensitivity. For image acquisition, choose the appropriate filters or dichroic mirrors and use the same dichroic mirror for all channels to enable line by line scanning, then select a water immersion objective for the imaging of live cells and choose 12 or 16 bit scanning with moderate scanning speed.Next, define the detection range preferably 470 to 510 nanometers for donor detection and 530 to 600 nanometers for acceptor detection in the case of the FRET pair of enhanced cyan fluorescent protein or ECFP and enhanced yellow fluorescent protein or EYFP. After applying the detector and laser settings as demonstrated previously, revise the laser intensity based on the obtained laser power table if required. Ensure that the signal-to-noise ratio covers the entire dynamic range of the detectors.After fine tuning with the pinhole diameter while keeping the laser intensities and detector gains constant, perform the FRET measurements taking images of at least 20 cells. To determine the crosstalk corrections, perform FRET measurements with cells expressing the donor fluorophore only and those expressing the acceptor fluorophore only. For calibration of the measurements, perform FRET measurements with cells expressing the donor acceptor fusion.For data evaluation, obtain line profiles of the cells ensuring that each profile contains no more than one cell. Save the profiles as text files. Then using the text file import option in the data section, import the text files into a spreadsheet.Next, read out the maximum values by applying the max function, then list the obtained values in a table having a column each for donor emission ID, FRET emission IF, accepter emission IA, and at least four datasets, donor only, accepter only, donor-accepter fusion, and measurement. The laser adjustment revealed a linear increase in emission with increasing laser intensity. As shown by a steeper slope, the emission of the 514 nanometer line was much higher than the emission of the 458 nanometer line.Varying the detector gains at constant laser power revealed an exponential behavior for both analyzed detectors. The discrepancy and the spectral bleed-through of the donor and the acceptor analyzed with recombinant purified proteins and that analyzed with cells expressing those proteins demonstrates that it is impossible to omit the determination of spectral bleed-through in living cells likely caused by cellular pigments. The FRET efficiency between the labeled vacuolar ATPA subunits, VHA AECFP, and VHA AEYFP decreased with increasing signal intensity.In contrast, the interaction between VHA E1 ECFP and VHA CEYFP was independent of the signal intensity. The choice of appropriate optical components is crucial for the detection of the donor and acceptor. This protocol can also be applied for ratiometric sensors in living cells to increase the reproducibility in these experiments.

forster-resonance-energy-transfer-measurements-in-living-plant-cells

Research

JoVE Journal

Biochemistry

Isolation and Respiratory Measurements of Mitochondria from Arabidopsis thaliana

Mitochondria are essential organelles involved in numerous metabolic pathways in plants, most notably the production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) from the oxidation of reduced compounds such as nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FADH2). The complete annotation of the Arabidopsis thaliana genome has established it as the most widely used plant model system, and thus the need to purify mitochondria from a variety of organs (leaf, root, or flower) is necessary to fully utilize the tools that are now available for Arabidopsis to study mitochondrial biology. Mitochondria are isolated by homogenization of the tissue using a variety of approaches, followed by a series of differential centrifugation steps producing a crude mitochondrial pellet that is further purified using continuous colloidal density gradient centrifugation. The colloidal density material is subsequently removed by multiple centrifugation steps. Starting from 100 g of fresh leaf tissue, 2 - 3 mg of mitochondria can be routinely obtained. Respiratory experiments on these mitochondria display typical rates of 100 - 250 nmol O2 min-1 mg total mitochondrial protein-1 (NADH-dependent rate) with the ability to use various substrates and inhibitors to determine which substrates are being oxidized and the capacity of the alternative and cytochrome terminal oxidases. This protocol describes an isolation method of mitochondria from Arabidopsis thaliana leaves using continuous colloidal density gradients and an efficient respiratory measurements of purified plant mitochondria.

Isolation and Respiratory Measurements of Mitochondria from Arabidopsis thaliana

As mitochondria are only a small percentage of the plant cell, they need to be purified for a range of studies. Mitochondria can be isolated from a variety of plant organs by homogenization, followed by differential and density gradient centrifugation to obtain a highly purified mitochondrial fraction.

Mitochondria are essential organelles involved in numerous metabolic pathways in plants, most notably the production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) from ...

Manipulating Living Cells to Construct Stable 3D Cellular Assembly Without Artificial Scaffold

Regenerative medicine and tissue engineering offer several advantages for the treatment of intractable diseases, and several studies have demonstrated the importance of 3-dimensional (3D) cellular assemblies in these fields. Artificial scaffolds have often been used to construct 3D cellular assemblies. However, the scaffolds used to construct cellular assemblies are sometimes toxic and may change the properties of the cells. Thus, it would be beneficial to establish a non-toxic method for facilitating cell-cell contact. In this paper, we introduce a novel method for constructing stable cellular assemblies by using optical tweezers with dextran. One of the advantages of this method is that it establishes stable cell-to-cell contact within a few minutes. This new method allows the construction of 3D cellular assemblies in a natural hydrophilic polymer and is expected to be useful for constructing next-generation 3D single-cell assemblies in the fields of regenerative medicine and tissue engineering.

We demonstrate a novel method for constructing a single-cell-based 3-dimensional (3D) assembly without an artificial scaffold.

Regenerative medicine and tissue engineering offer several advantages for the treatment of intractable diseases, and several studies have demonstrated the ...

Dissipative Microgravimetry to Study the Binding Dynamics of the Phospholipid Binding Protein Annexin A2 to Solid-supported Lipid Bilayers Using a Quartz Resonator

The dissipative quartz crystal microbalance technique is a simple and label-free approach to measure simultaneously the mass uptake and viscoelastic properties of the absorbed/immobilized mass on sensor surfaces, allowing the measurements of the interaction of proteins with solid-supported surfaces, such as lipid bilayers, in real-time and with a high sensitivity. Annexins are a highly conserved group of phospholipid-binding proteins that interact reversibly with the negatively charged headgroups via the coordination of calcium ions. Here, we describe a protocol that was employed to quantitatively analyze the binding of annexin A2 (AnxA2) to planar lipid bilayers prepared on the surface of a quartz sensor. This protocol is optimized to obtain robust and reproducible data and includes a detailed step-by-step description. The method can be applied to other membrane-binding proteins and bilayer compositions.

Here, we present an experimental protocol that can be employed to determine the binding affinities and mode of interaction of label-free phospholipid-binding protein annexin A2 with immobilized solid-supported bilayers (SLB) by simultaneously measuring the mass uptake and the viscoelastic properties of the protein annexin A2.

The dissipative quartz crystal microbalance technique is a simple and label-free approach to measure simultaneously the mass uptake and viscoelastic ...

Modifying Baculovirus Expression Vectors to Produce Secreted Plant Proteins in Insect Cells

It has been a challenge for scientists to express recombinant secretory eukaryotic proteins for structural and biochemical studies. The baculovirus-mediated insect cell expression system is one of the systems used to express recombinant eukaryotic secretory proteins with some post-translational modifications. The secretory proteins need to be routed through the secretory pathways for protein glycosylation, disulfide bonds formation, and other post-translational modifications. To improve the existing insect cell expression of secretory plant proteins, a baculovirus expression vector is modified by the addition of either a GP67 or a hemolin signal peptide sequence between the promoter and multiple-cloning sites. This newly designed modified vector system successfully produced a high yield of soluble recombinant secreted plant receptor proteins of Arabidopsis thaliana. Two of the expressed plant proteins, the extracellular domains of Arabidopsis TDR and PRK3 plasma membrane receptors, were crystallized for X-ray crystallographic studies. The modified vector system is an improved tool that can potentially be used for the expression of recombinant secretory proteins in the animal kingdom as well.

Here, we present the protocols for utilizing the insect cell and baculovirus protein expression system to produce large quantities of plant secreted proteins for protein crystallization. A baculovirus expression vector has been modified with either GP67 or insect hemolin signal peptide for plant protein secretion expression in insect cells.

It has been a challenge for scientists to express recombinant secretory eukaryotic proteins for structural and biochemical studies. The ...

Isolation of Physiologically Active Thylakoids and Their Use in Energy-Dependent Protein Transport Assays

Chloroplasts are the organelles in green plants responsible for carrying out numerous essential metabolic pathways, most notably photosynthesis. Within the chloroplasts, the thylakoid membrane system houses all the photosynthetic pigments, reaction center complexes, and most of the electron carriers, and is responsible for light-dependent ATP synthesis. Over 90% of chloroplast proteins are encoded in the nucleus, translated in the cytosol, and subsequently imported into the chloroplast. Further protein transport into or across the thylakoid membrane utilizes one of four translocation pathways. Here, we describe a high-yield method for isolation of transport-competent thylakoids from peas (Pisum sativum), along with transport assays through the three energy-dependent cpTat, cpSec1, and cpSRP-mediated pathways. These methods enable experiments relating to thylakoid protein localization, transport energetics, and the mechanisms of protein translocation across biological membranes.

We present protocols herein for high-yield isolation of physiologically active thylakoids and protein transport assays for the chloroplast twin arginine translocation (cpTat), secretory (cpSec1), and signal recognition particle (cpSRP) pathways.

Chloroplasts are the organelles in green plants responsible for carrying out numerous essential metabolic pathways, most notably photosynthesis. Within ...

Analysis of Protein Folding, Transport, and Degradation in Living Cells by Radioactive Pulse Chase

Radioactive pulse-chase labeling is a powerful tool for studying the conformational maturation, the transport to their functional cellular location, and the degradation of target proteins in live cells. By using short (pulse) radiolabeling times (&lt;30 min) and tightly controlled chase times, it is possible to label only a small fraction of the total protein pool and follow its folding. When combined with nonreducing/reducing SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and immunoprecipitation with (conformation-specific) antibodies, folding processes can be examined in great detail. This system has been used to analyze the folding of proteins with a huge variation in properties such as soluble proteins, single and multi-pass transmembrane proteins, heavily N- and O-glycosylated proteins, and proteins with and without extensive disulfide bonding. Pulse-chase methods are the basis of kinetic studies into a range of additional features, including co- and posttranslational modifications, oligomerization, and polymerization, essentially allowing the analysis of a protein from birth to death. Pulse-chase studies on protein folding are complementary with other biochemical and biophysical methods for studying proteins in vitro by providing increased temporal resolution and physiological information. The methods as described within this paper are adapted easily to study the folding of almost any protein that can be expressed in mammalian or insect-cell systems.

Here we describe a protocol for a general pulse-chase method that allows the kinetic analysis of folding, transport, and degradation of proteins to be followed in live cells.

Radioactive pulse-chase labeling is a powerful tool for studying the conformational maturation, the transport to their functional cellular location, and ...

Using In Vitro Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer to Study the Dynamics Of Protein Complexes at a Millisecond Time Scale

Proteins are the primary operators of biological systems, and they usually interact with other macro- or small molecules to carry out their biological functions. Such interactions can be highly dynamic, meaning the interacting subunits are constantly associated and dissociated at certain rates. While measuring the binding affinity using techniques such as quantitative pull-down reveals the strength of the interaction, studying the binding kinetics provides insights on how fast the interaction occurs and how long each complex can exist. Furthermore, measuring the kinetics of an interaction in the presence of an additional factor, such as a protein exchange factor or a drug, helps reveal the mechanism by which the interaction is regulated by the other factor, providing important knowledge for the advancement of biological and medical research. Here, we describe a protocol for measuring the binding kinetics of a protein complex that has a high intrinsic association rate and can be dissociated quickly by another protein. The method uses fluorescence resonance energy transfer to report the formation of the protein complex in vitro, and it enables monitoring the fast association and dissociation of the complex in real time on a stopped-flow fluorimeter. Using this assay, the association and dissociation rate constants of the protein complex are quantified.

Protein-protein interactions are critical for biological systems, and studies of the binding kinetics provide insights into the dynamics and function of protein complexes. We describe a method that quantifies the kinetic parameters of a protein complex using fluorescence resonance energy transfer and the stopped-flow technique. &#160;

Proteins are the primary operators of biological systems, and they usually interact with other macro- or small molecules to carry out their biological ...

Phosphoproteomic Strategy for Profiling Osmotic Stress Signaling in Arabidopsis

Protein phosphorylation is crucial for the regulation of enzyme activity and gene expression under osmotic condition. Mass spectrometry (MS)-based phosphoproteomics has transformed the way of studying plant signal transduction. However, requirement of lots of starting materials and prolonged MS measurement time to achieve the depth of coverage has been the limiting factor for the high throughput study of global phosphoproteomic changes in plants. To improve the sensitivity and throughput of plant phosphoproteomics, we have developed a stop and go extraction (stage) tip based phosphoproteomics approach coupled with Tandem Mass Tag (TMT) labeling for the rapid and comprehensive analysis of plant phosphorylation perturbation in response to osmotic stress. Leveraging the simplicity and high throughput of stage tip technique, the whole procedure takes approximately one hour using two tips to finish phosphopeptide enrichment, fractionation, and sample cleaning steps, suggesting an easy-to-use and high efficiency of the approach. This approach not only provides an in-depth plant phosphoproteomics analysis (&#62; 11,000 phosphopeptide identification) but also demonstrates the superior separation efficiency (&#60; 5% overlap) between adjacent fractions. Further, multiplexing has been achieved using TMT labeling to quantify the phosphoproteomic changes of wild-type and snrk2 decuple mutant plants. This approach has successfully been used to reveal the phosphorylation events of Raf-like kinases in response to osmotic stress, which sheds light on the understanding of early osmotic signaling in land plants.

Phosphoproteomic Strategy for Profiling Osmotic Stress Signaling in Arabidopsis

Presented here is a phosphoproteomic approach, namely stop and go extraction tip based phosphoproteomic, which provides high-throughput and deep coverage of Arabidopsis phosphoproteome. This approach delineates the overview of osmotic stress signaling in Arabidopsis.

Protein phosphorylation is crucial for the regulation of enzyme activity and gene expression under osmotic condition. Mass spectrometry (MS)-based ...

Removal and Replacement of Endogenous Ligands from Lipid-Bound Proteins and Allergens

Many major allergens bind to hydrophobic lipid-like molecules, including Mus m 1, Bet v 1, Der p 2, and Fel d 1. These ligands are strongly retained and have the potential to influence the sensitization process either through directly stimulating the immune system or altering the biophysical properties of the allergenic protein. In order to control for these variables, techniques are required for the removal of endogenously bound ligands and, if necessary, replacement with lipids of known composition. The cockroach allergen Bla g 1 encloses a large hydrophobic cavity which binds a heterogeneous mixture of endogenous lipids when purified using traditional techniques. Here, we describe a method through which these lipids are removed using reverse-phase HPLC followed by thermal annealing to yield Bla g 1 in either its Apo-form or reloaded with a user-defined mixture of fatty acid or phospholipid cargoes. Coupling this protocol with biochemical assays reveal that fatty acid cargoes significantly alter the thermostability and proteolytic resistance of Bla g 1, with downstream implications for the rate of T-cell epitope generation and allergenicity. These results highlight the importance of lipid removal/reloading protocols such as the one described herein when studying allergens from both recombinant and natural sources. The protocol is generalizable to other allergen families including lipocalins (Mus m 1), PR-10 (Bet v 1), MD-2 (Der p 2) and Uteroglobin (Fel d 1), providing a valuable tool to study the role of lipids in the allergic response.

This protocol describes the removal of endogenous lipids from allergens, and their replacement with user-specified ligands through reverse-phase HPLC coupled with thermal annealing. 31P-NMR and circular dichroism allow for the rapid confirmation of ligand removal/loading, and the recovery of native allergen structure.

Many major allergens bind to hydrophobic lipid-like molecules, including Mus m 1, Bet v 1, Der p 2, and Fel d 1. These ligands are strongly retained and ...

Single Molecule Fluorescence Energy Transfer Study of Ribosome Protein Synthesis

The ribosome is a large ribonucleoprotein complex that assembles proteins processively along mRNA templates. The diameter of the ribosome is approximately 20 nm to accommodate large tRNA substrates at the A-, P- and E-sites. Consequently, the ribosome dynamics are naturally de-phased quickly. Single molecule method can detect each ribosome separately and distinguish inhomogeneous populations, which is essential to reveal the complicated mechanisms of multi-component systems. We report the details of a smFRET method based on the Nikon Ti2 inverted microscope to probe the ribosome dynamics between the ribosomal protein L27 and tRNAs. The L27 is labeled at its unique Cys 53 position and reconstituted into a ribosome that is engineered to lack L27. The tRNA is labeled at its elbow region. As the tRNA moves to different locations inside the ribosome during the elongation cycle, such as pre- and post- translocation, the FRET efficiencies and dynamics exhibit differences, which have suggested multiple subpopulations. These subpopulations are not detectable by ensemble methods. The TIRF-based smFRET microscope is built on a manual or motorized inverted microscope, with home-built laser illumination. The ribosome samples are purified by ultracentrifugation, loaded into a home-built multi-channel sample cell and then illuminated via an evanescent laser field. The reflection laser spot can be used to achieve feedback control of perfect focus. The fluorescence signals are separated by a motorized filter-turret and collected by two digital CMOS cameras. The intensities are retrieved via the NIS-Elements software.

Single molecule fluorescence energy transfer is a method that tracks the tRNA dynamics during ribosomal protein synthesis. By tracking individual ribosomes, inhomogeneous populations are identified, which shed light on mechanisms. This method can be used to track biological conformational changes in general to reveal dynamic-function relationships in many other complexed biosystems. Single molecule methods can observe non-rate limiting steps and low-populated key intermediates, which are not accessible by conventional ensemble methods due to the average effect.

The ribosome is a large ribonucleoprotein complex that assembles proteins processively along mRNA templates. The diameter of the ribosome is approximately ...