We are grateful to the Dr. Thierry Pourcher for allowing us to use the fluorescence spectrometer and for his help. The laboratory is funded by the Ligue Nationale Contre le Cancer (&#233;quipe labellis&#233;e), the Association pour la Recherche contre le Cancer, the Institut National du Cancer (INCa), the Agence Nationale pour la Recherche, METOXIA (EU program FP7), the Centre A. Lacassagne, the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, the Institut National de la Sant&#233; et de la Recherche M&#233;dicale and the University of Nice (<a href="http://www.unice.fr/isdbc/" target="_blank">http://www.unice.fr/isdbc/</a>). We thank Dr. M Christiane Brahimi-Horn for critical reading and editorial correction.

Biochemical Titration of Glycogen
1. Cell Lysis
<ol>
	<li>Seed cells at a concentration of 0.5-2 x 106 per 100 mm diameter dish.</li>
	<li>Treatment: incubate cells 24, 48, or 72 hr in low oxygen concentration (hypoxia) in a Bug-Box anaerobic work station (Ruskinn Technology Biotrace International Plc, Bridgend, UK) set at 1% or 0.1% O2, 94% or 94.9% N2, and 5% CO2. In parallel, incubate cells in normoxia (21% O2, 5% CO2). Change medium (25 mM glucose-containing medium) every 24 hr to minimize variations in the glucose concentration during the time of experiment.</li>
	<li>After treatment, wash cells 2x with PBS to remove traces of glucose from culture medium. Scrape the cells in cold PBS.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge the solution at 1,000 rpm for 5 min, discard the supernatant and wash the pellet once with PBS. The pellet can be frozen at -20 &#176;C before proceeding further.</li>
	<li>Resuspend the pellet in 100 &#956;l of distilled water. Add 100 &#956;l of the Glycogen Hydrolysis Buffer provided with the Glycogen Assay Kit (Abcam). Boil the lysate at 95 &#176;C for 5 min to inactivate enzymes.</li>
	<li>Vortex and centrifuge the lysate at 13,000 rpm for 10 min to remove the insoluble products. Keep the supernatant.</li>
	<li>To normalize glycogen levels to the protein content between samples, quantification of proteins can be done with 25-35 &#956;l of the supernatant using the Bicinchoninic Acid assay (BCA-Interchim).</li>
</ol>
Some of the lysate can be used to measure the free glucose concentration inside the cells.
2. Hydrolysis of Glycogen
<ol>
	<li>Mix 50 &#956;l of the supernatant (step 1) with 1 &#956;l of the Hydrolysis Enzyme Mix. This mixture contains glucoamylase. Incubate for 30 min at room temperature.</li>
	<li>Prepare the calibration curve by diluting the standard glycogen (2 mg/ml) supplied with the kit to a solution of 10 &#956;g/ml in the hydrolysis buffer. Next, prepare six separate tubes with 0, 4, 8, 12, 16, and 20 &#956;l of 10 &#956;g/ml standard and adjust each tube to a final volume of 50 &#956;l with hydrolysis buffer to give a concentration of glycogen of 0, 0.04, 0.08, 0.12, 0.16, and 0.2 &#956;g/ml. Add 1 &#956;l of Hydrolysis Enzyme Mix in the standards and incubate for 30 min at room temperature.</li>
</ol>
The background glucose concentration of the cell line, given by value for the free glucose concentration, must be subtracted from the value for the total glucose concentration (glucose from the glycogen hydrolysis + free-glucose) to determine the level of glycogen in the cell.
3. Development and Reading of Fluorescence
<ol>
	<li>For each condition, prepare one tube (tube 1) to measure free glucose concentration and two tubes (tubes 2 and 3) to measure total glucose concentration (each tube with a different volume of hydrolyzed glycogen).</li>
	<li>Add 15 &#956;l of supernatant extracted at the end of step 1&#160;in tube 1. Add 35 &#956;l of hydrolysis buffer to complete to a final volume of 50 &#956;l. Obtained fluorescence will give the free glucose concentration.</li>
	<li>Add X &#956;l of hydrolyzed glycogen (obtained in step 2) in tube 2. Adjust to a final volume of 50 &#956;l. Sample volume (X &#956;l) has to be adjusted according to cell density and/or cell type in order to obtain fluorescence values that are not beyond concentrations of the calibration curve.</li>
	<li>Add 2X &#956;l of hydrolyzed glycogen in tube 3. Adjust to a final volume of 50 &#956;l.</li>
	<li>Prepare a development solution for samples and standards by mixing for each tube 48.7 &#956;l of Development Buffer, 1 &#956;l of Development Enzyme Mix and 0.3 &#956;l of OxiRed Probe (supplied in the Glycogen Assay Kit). For example, for 2 conditions, prepare a mix for 12 tubes (6 for standards, 2 for free glucose and 4 for total glucose fluorescence).</li>
	<li>Add 50 &#956;l of this mix to each tube and incubate for 30 min at room temperature in the dark.</li>
	<li>Measure the fluorescence&#160;at an excitation wavelength of 535 nm, an emission wavelength of 587 nm as recommended, and a slit of 3 nm for excitation and emission.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Pelletier, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Glycogen+Synthesis+is+Induced+in+Hypoxia+by+the+Hypoxia-Inducible+Factor+and+Promotes+Cancer+Cell+Survival.">Glycogen Synthesis is Induced in Hypoxia by the Hypoxia-Inducible Factor and Promotes Cancer Cell Survival.</a> Front Oncol. 2, (2012).</li><li>Alonso, M. D., Lomako, J., Lomako, W. M., Whelan, W. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+new+look+at+the+biogenesis+of+glycogen.">A new look at the biogenesis of glycogen.</a> FASEB J. 9, 1126-1137 (1995).</li><li>Bollen, M., Keppens, S., Stalmans, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Specific+features+of+glycogen+metabolism+in+the+liver.">Specific features of glycogen metabolism in the liver.</a> Biochem. J. 336 (Pt 1), 19-31 (1998).</li><li>Parker, G. J., Koay, A., Gilbert-Wilson, R., Waddington, L. J., Stapleton, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=AMP-activated+protein+kinase+does+not+associate+with+glycogen+alpha-particles+from+rat+liver.">AMP-activated protein kinase does not associate with glycogen alpha-particles from rat liver.</a> Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 362, 811-815 (2007).</li><li>Sullivan, M. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nature+of+alpha+and+beta+particles+in+glycogen+using+molecular+size+distributions.">Nature of alpha and beta particles in glycogen using molecular size distributions.</a> Biomacromolecules. 11, 1094-1100 (2010).</li><li>Chee, N. P., Geddes, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+structure+of+liver+glycogen.">The structure of liver glycogen.</a> FEBS Lett. 73, 164-166 (1977).</li><li>Roach, P. J., Depaoli-Roach, A. A., Hurley, T. D., Tagliabracci, V. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Glycogen+and+its+metabolism:+some+new+developments+and+old+themes.">Glycogen and its metabolism: some new developments and old themes.</a> Biochem. J. 441, 763-787 (2012).</li><li>Moses, S. W., Bashan, N., Gutman, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Glycogen+metabolism+in+the+normal+red+blood+cell.">Glycogen metabolism in the normal red blood cell.</a> Blood. 40, 836-843 (1972).</li><li>Agbanyo, M., Taylor, N. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Incorporation+of+3-deoxy-3-fluoro-D-glucose+into+glycogen+and+trehalose+in+fat+body+and+flight+muscle+in+Locusta+migratoria.">Incorporation of 3-deoxy-3-fluoro-D-glucose into glycogen and trehalose in fat body and flight muscle in Locusta migratoria.</a> Biosci. Rep. 6, 309-316 (1986).</li><li>Louzao, M. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term="Fluorescent+glycogen"+formation+with+sensibility+for+in+vivo+and+in+vitro+detection.">"Fluorescent glycogen" formation with sensibility for in vivo and in vitro detection.</a> Glycoconj. J. 25, 503-510 (2008).</li><li>Sheehan, D. C. H., B, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Theory and practice of histotechnology. , (1980).</li><li>Baba, O. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Production+of+monoclonal+antibody+that+recognizes+glycogen+and+its+application+for+immunohistochemistry.">Production of monoclonal antibody that recognizes glycogen and its application for immunohistochemistry.</a> Kokubyo Gakkai Zasshi. 60, 264-287 (1993).</li></ol>

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Biochemical titration of glycogen in vitro allows an accurate quantification of cells glycogen content. Comparing to some other techniques (PAS, immunofluorescence with a glycogen antibody, etc.), this titration is very specific, sensitive and reproducible. Moreover, the method is convenient since it requires no radioactivity but a fluorescence spectrometer. However, this technique is purely quantitative and does not provide information about glycogen distribution in the cell.
<p class="jove_content...

Glycogen is a multibranched polymer of glucose residues, which is present in the cytoplasm of many cell types. It is one of the main forms of energy storage in cells and plays an important role in glucose metabolism. Most mammalian cells are able to produce and store glycogen, which can be rapidly degraded into glucose to promote glycolysis and ATP production during metabolic stress. Hepatocytes produce massive amounts of glycogen to regulate the blood sugar level thereby providing a continuous supply of glucose to the body. In contrast, the concentration of glycogen in other cells (muscles, red blood cells,&#160;etc.) is relatively low. However, locally, these quantities are sufficient to provide energy in the&#160;short-term when the cells are suddenly exposed to an environment deprived of nutrients.
Glycogen synthesis and glycogen breakdown follows the same steps in all tissues (Figure 1). Firstly, glucose enters cells by glucose transporters (GLUTs), and is rapidly converted from glucose-6-phosphate (G6P) into glucose-1-phosphate (G1P) by phosphoglucomutase. G1P is then modified into UDP-glucose, and the carbon C1 of UDP-glucose is attached to a tyrosine residue of glycogenin, the anchoring protein of glycogen. This molecule, considered a glycogen primer, is extended by attachment of the UDP-glucose to the terminal glucose by an &#945;(1&#8594;4) bond via the glycogen synthase. Finally, when a linear chain of over 11 glucose residues is formed, the branching enzyme transfers a terminal oligosaccharide constituted by a minimum of 6 glucose residues to another glucose of the chain nearby through an &#945;(1&#8594;6) linkage. The repetition of this process gives a massive fractal structure containing branches that form a helix with 6.5 glucose per turn. Glycogen can be reversely hydrolyzed to glucose by the concerted action of debranching enzymes that hydrolyze the &#945;(1&#8594;6) bound and glycogen phosphorylase that hydrolyzes the &#945;(1&#8594;4) glycosidic bound between the last residue of glucose of a branch and the glycogen molecule. This reaction called glycogenolysis is activated by increasing levels of AMP (reflecting ATP consumption), and inhibited by glucose and ATP2,3.
By electron microscopy, glycogen molecules have been described in many cell types as &#946; free particles (or glycogen monoparticles) of 15-30 nm in diameter. In specific cell types such as hepatocytes, &#946; particles can be assembled into a complex to form rosettes, also known as &#945; particles that vary in diameter from 80 nm to a maximum of 200 nm4. The way these &#946; particles are bonded to form larger clusters of &#945; particles is still not fully elucidated. Some evidence tends to prove that &#946; particles can be bonded by covalent bonding5, hydrogen bonding, or even through protein-protein interactions6. The amount of glycogen stored in the cells depends on many parameters: (I) the amount of glycogenin in the cell that initiates glycogen synthesis; (II) the activity of glycogen synthase and phosphorylase regulated by protein phosphorylation/dephosphorylation; (III) the concentration of glucose in the cells, which is dependent on several parameters such as the supply of glucose from the vascular system and glucose uptake by cells. Glycogen stores are tightly regulated by allosteric regulation of biosynthetic hormones through intermediate metabolites, by hormones regulating energy metabolism, and by nutrient sensing signaling pathways7.
It is important to be able to quantify glycogen in biological samples to better understand the importance of glycogen metabolism at the whole body and cellular level. We describe here a precise, reproducible and convenient biochemical in vitro assay for glycogen. This technique is based on the quantification glucose fluorescence before and after specific hydrolysis of glycogen.
Other methods exist to estimate the level of glycogen in the cells, but most of them are not quantitative. One of the first techniques described for quantification of glycogen in cells was based on measurement of [14C]-glucose incorporation into glycogen8,9. The use of radioactivity makes this process more difficult to handle but it has the advantage of providing the rate of glucose incorporation into glycogen and in distinguishing between the distribution of glucose residues on the outer branches and in the core of the molecule (it also requires an additional &#946;-amylolysis and a chromatographic step). Another technique was developed more recently and is based on the incorporation of 2-NBDG (2-{N-[7-nitrobenz-2-oxa-1,3-diazol-4-yl] amino}-2-deoxyglucose), a 2-deoxyglucose fluorescent derivative, into glycogen10. The measured fluorescence intensity reflects the amount of glycogen produced and can be measured with a fluorescence reader. Distribution of fluorescence in the cell can also be evaluated by confocal microscopy.
Among the other nonquantitative techniques, Periodic Acid-Schiff staining (PAS) is perhaps the most common. It can be used for the detection of glycogen in fixed cells, tissue sections in paraffin or frozen. This histological technique colors non specifically polysaccharides, glycolipids, glycoproteins, cellulose and neutral mucins in purple. The specificity of this test can be increased by treatment of fixed cells or tissue sections with diastase, which specifically digests glycogen. Thereafter, the level of glycogen can be qualitatively estimated by comparing unhydrolyzed samples (all carbohydrate modified macromolecules) to hydrolyzed samples (carbohydrate modified macromolecules except glycogen). PAS staining and microscopic analysis, unlike biochemical assays of glycogen, provides information concerning the distribution of glycogen in the cell, which can be diffused or concentrated in a certain part of the cell. However, even though PAS staining estimates differences in glycogen accumulation between different conditions, it is not quantitative11.
A monoclonal mouse antibody originally made using mandibular condylar cartilage as the antigen has been shown to react with glycogen in cells and with purified glycogen in vitro12. As this antibody specifically recognizes glycogen-related sugar chains, it is a useful tool for the detection of glycogen by immunohistochemistry in a more specific way than the PAS staining.
Electron microscopy is another technique that allows visualization of grains of glycogen in cells and evaluation of the degree of glycogen storage. In fact, glycogen &#946; particles are easily recognizable with an electron microscopy as electron dense granules1.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="always">
		<tbody>
		 <tr>
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			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>REAGENTS</td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>DMEM</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>31966.047</td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>Glycogen Assay Kit</td>
			<td>Abcam</td>
			<td>ab65620 </td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>PBS</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		<tr>
 	<td></td>
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 <td></td>
 <td>EQUIPMENT</td>
	 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>Material Name</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalogue Number</td>
			<td>Comments (optional)</td>
		 </tr>
		 <tr>
			<td>Fluorescence Spectrometer</td>
			<td>PerkinElmer</td>
			<td>LS 50B</td>
			<td></td>
		 </tr>
		</tbody>
 </table>

biochemical titration of glycogen in vitro

Glycogen is the main energetic polymer of glucose in vertebrate animals and plays a crucial role in whole body metabolism as well as in cellular metabolism. Many methods to detect glycogen already exist but only a few are quantitative. We describe here a method using the Abcam Glycogen assay kit, which is based on specific degradation of glycogen to glucose by glucoamylase. Glucose is then specifically oxidized to a product that reacts with the OxiRed probe to produce fluorescence. Titration is accurate, sensitive and can be achieved on cell extracts or tissue sections. However, in contrast to other techniques, it does not give information about the distribution of glycogen in the cell. As an example of this technique, we describe here the titration of glycogen in two cell lines, Chinese hamster lung fibroblast CCL39 and human colon carcinoma LS174, incubated in normoxia (21% O2) versus hypoxia (1% O2). We hypothesized that hypoxia is a signal that prepares cells to synthesize and store glycogen in order to survive1.

A low level of oxygen (hypoxia) in tumors signals to tumor cells the need to store energy to handle subsequent nutrient depletion, so as to survive. As glycogen is the main energetic polymer of glucose in mammalian cells, we studied the regulation of glycogen storage in hypoxia. The calculation and standardization of the concentration of glycogen in cell lysates must be performed on the raw data of fluorescence as shown in Tables 1, 2, and 3. The biochemical assay for gl...

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Biochemical Titration of Glycogen In vitro

We describe here an accurate, reproducible and convenient biochemical method for titration of glycogen in vitro. This technique uses the Abcam Glycogen assay kit and is based on successive hydrolysis of glycogen to glucose and glucose titration by fluorescence.

Biochemical Titration of Glycogen In vitro

Glycogen is the main energetic polymer of glucose in vertebrate animals and plays a crucial role in whole body metabolism as well as in cellular ...

biochemical-titration-of-glycogen-in-vitro

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28.3K Views.  University of Nice - Sophia Antipolis. We describe here an accurate, reproducible and convenient biochemical method for titration of glycogen in vitro. This technique uses the Abcam Glycogen assay kit and is based on successive hydrolysis of glycogen to glucose and glucose titration by fluorescence.

Video: Biochemical Titration of Glycogen In vitro

Titration of Human Coronaviruses Using an Immunoperoxidase Assay

Determination of infectious viral titers is a basic and essential experimental approach for virologists. Classical plaque assays cannot be used for viruses that do not cause significant cytopathic effects, which is the case for prototype strains 229E and OC43 of human coronavirus (HCoV). Therefore, an alternative indirect immunoperoxidase assay (IPA) was developed for the detection and titration of these viruses and is described herein. Susceptible cells are inoculated with serial logarithmic dilutions of virus-containing samples in a 96-well plate format. After viral growth, viral detection by IPA yields the infectious virus titer, expressed as 'Tissue Culture Infectious Dose 50 percent' (TCID50). This represents the dilution of a virus-containing sample at which half of a series of laboratory wells contain infectious replicating virus. This technique provides a reliable method for the titration of HCoV-229E and HCoV-OC43 in biological samples such as cells, tissues and fluids. This article is based on work first reported in Methods in Molecular Biology (2008) volume 454, pages 93-102.

In this video, we demonstrate an alternative method for detection and titering of viruses using an enzymatic antigen detection technique known as an immunoperoxidase assay. Here, we will show you how to collect your viral samples, prepare the cells for testing, and finally the immunoperoxidase assay using serial dilutions to determine the viral titer.

Determination of infectious viral titers is a basic and essential experimental approach for virologists. Classical plaque assays cannot be used for ...

Zebrafish Brain Ventricle Injection

Proper brain ventricle formation during embryonic brain development is required for normal brain function.  Brain ventricles are the highly conserved cavities within the brain that are filled with cerebrospinal fluid.  In zebrafish, after neural tube formation, the neuroepithelium undergoes a series of constrictions and folds while it fills with fluid resulting in brain ventricle formation.  In order to understand the process of ventricle formation, and the neuroepithelial shape changes that occur at the same time, we needed a way to visualize the ventricle space in comparison to the brain tissue.  However, the nature of transparent zebrafish embryos makes it difficult to differentiate the tissue from the ventricle space.  Therefore, we developed a brain ventricle injection technique where the ventricle space is filled with a fluorescent dye and imaged by brightfield and fluorescent microscopy.  The brightfield and the fluorescent images are then processed and superimposed in Photoshop.  This technique allows for visualization of the ventricle space with the fluorescent dye, in comparison to the shape of the neuroepithelium in the brightfield image.  Brain ventricle injection in zebrafish can be employed from 18 hours post fertilization through early larval stages.  We have used this technique extensively in our studies of brain ventricle formation and morphogenesis as well as in characterizing brain morphogenesis mutants (1-3).

After neural tube formation, the neuroepithelium constricts and folds while the tube fills with embryonic cerebrospinal fluid (eCSF) to form the embryonic brain ventricles. We developed this ventricle injection technique to better visualize the fluid filled space in contrast to the neuroepithelial shape in a live embryo.

Proper brain ventricle formation during embryonic brain development is required for normal brain function.  Brain ventricles are the highly conserved ...

Collecting Variable-concentration Isothermal Titration Calorimetry Datasets in Order to Determine Binding Mechanisms

Isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) is commonly used to determine the thermodynamic parameters associated with the binding of a ligand to a host macromolecule. ITC has some advantages over common spectroscopic approaches for studying host/ligand interactions. For example, the heat released or absorbed when the two components interact is directly measured and does not require any exogenous reporters. Thus the binding enthalpy and the association constant (Ka) are directly obtained from ITC data, and can be used to compute the entropic contribution. Moreover, the shape of the isotherm is dependent on the c-value and the mechanistic model involved. The c-value is defined as c = n[P]tKa, where [P]t is the protein concentration, and n is the number of ligand binding sites within the host. In many cases, multiple binding sites for a given ligand are non-equivalent and ITC allows the characterization of the thermodynamic binding parameters for each individual binding site. This however requires that the correct binding model be used. This choice can be problematic if different models can fit the same experimental data. We have previously shown that this problem can be circumvented by performing experiments at several c-values. The multiple isotherms obtained at different c-values are fit simultaneously to separate models. The correct model is next identified based on the goodness of fit across the entire variable-c dataset. This process is applied here to the aminoglycoside resistance-causing enzyme aminoglycoside N-6'-acetyltransferase-Ii (AAC(6')-Ii). Although our methodology is applicable to any system, the necessity of this strategy is better demonstrated with a macromolecule-ligand system showing allostery or cooperativity, and when different binding models provide essentially identical fits to the same data. To our knowledge, there are no such systems commercially available. AAC(6')-Ii, is a homo-dimer containing two active sites, showing cooperativity between the two subunits. However ITC data obtained at a single c-value can be fit equally well to at least two different models a two-sets-of-sites independent model and a two-site sequential (cooperative) model. Through varying the c-value as explained above, it was established that the correct binding model for AAC(6')-Ii is a two-site sequential binding model. Herein, we describe the steps that must be taken when performing ITC experiments in order to obtain datasets suitable for variable-c analyses.

ITC is a powerful tool for studying the binding of a ligand to its host. In complex systems however, several models may fit the data equally well. The method described here provides a means to elucidate the appropriate binding model for complex systems and extract the corresponding thermodynamic parameters.

Isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) is commonly used to determine the thermodynamic parameters associated with the binding of a ligand to a host ...

Biochemical Reconstitution of Steroid Receptor&#x2022;Hsp90 Protein  Complexes and Reactivation of Ligand Binding

Hsp90 is an essential and highly abundant molecular chaperone protein that has been found to regulate more than 150 eukaryotic signaling proteins, including transcription factors (e.g. nuclear receptors, p53) and protein kinases (e.g. Src, Raf, Akt kinase) involved in cell cycling, tumorigenesis, apoptosis, and multiple eukaryotic signaling pathways 1,2. Of these many 'client' proteins for hsp90, the assembly of steroid receptor&bull;hsp90 complexes is the best defined (Figure 1). We present here an adaptable glucocorticoid receptor (GR) immunoprecipitation assay and in vitro GR&bull;hsp90 reconstitution method that may be readily used to probe eukaryotic hsp90 functional activity, hsp90-mediated steroid receptor ligand binding, and molecular chaperone cofactor requirements. For example, this assay can be used to test hsp90 cofactor requirements and the effects of adding exogenous compounds to the reconstitution process. 
The GR has been a particularly useful system for studying hsp90 because the receptor must be bound to hsp90 to have an open ligand binding cleft that is accessible to steroid 3. Endogenous, unliganded GR is present in the cytoplasm of mammalian cells noncovalently bound to hsp90. As found in the endogenous GR&bull;hsp90 heterocomplex, the GR ligand binding cleft is open and capable of binding steroid. If hsp90 dissociates from the GR or if its function is inhibited, the receptor is unable to bind steroid and requires reconstitution of the GR&bull;hsp90 heterocomplex before steroid binding activity is restored 4 . GR can be immunoprecipitated from cell cytosol using a monoclonal antibody, and proteins such as hsp90 complexed to the GR can be assayed by western blot. Steroid binding activity of the immunoprecipitated GR can be determined by incubating the immunopellet with [3H]steroid. 
Previous experiments have shown hsp90-mediated opening of the GR ligand binding cleft requires hsp70, a second molecular chaperone also essential for eukaryotic cell viability. Biochemical activity of hsp90 and hsp70 are catalyzed by co-chaperone proteins Hop, hsp40, and p23 5. A multiprotein chaperone machinery containing hsp90, hsp70, Hop, and hsp40 are endogenously present in eukaryotic cell cytoplasm, and reticulocyte lysate provides a chaperone-rich protein source 6. 
In the method presented, GR is immunoadsorbed from cell cytosol and stripped of the endogenous hsp90/hsp70 chaperone machinery using mild salt conditions. The salt-stripped GR is then incubated with reticulocyte lysate, ATP, and K+, which results in the reconstitution of the GR&bull;hsp90 heterocomplex and reactivation of steroid binding activity 7. This method can be utilized to test the effects of various chaperone cofactors, novel proteins, and experimental hsp90 or GR inhibitors in order to determine their functional significance on hsp90-mediated steroid binding 8-11.

An in vitro method for preparing functional glucocorticoid receptor (GR)&#x2022;hsp90 protein complexes from purified proteins and cellular lysates is described. The method utilizes immunoadsorption of recombinant GR followed by salt-stripping and protein complex reconstitution. The importance of cofactors and buffer conditions are discussed, as are potential method applications.

Hsp90 is an essential and highly abundant molecular chaperone protein that has been found to regulate more than 150 eukaryotic signaling proteins, ...

Blood Collection for Biochemical Analysis in Adult Zebrafish

The zebrafish has been used as an animal model for studies of several human diseases. It can serve as a powerful preclinical platform for studies of molecular events and therapeutic strategies as well as for evaluating the physiological mechanisms of some pathologies1. 
There are relatively few publications related to adult zebrafish physiology of organs and systems2, which may lead researchers to infer that the basic techniques needed to allow the exploration of zebrafish systems are lacking3. Hematologic biochemical values of zebrafish were first reported in 2003 by Murtha and colleagues4 who employed a blood collection technique first described by Jagadeeswaran and colleagues in 1999. Briefly, blood was collected via a micropipette tip through a lateral incision, approximately 0.3 cm in length, in the region of the dorsal aorta5. Because of the minute dimensions involved, this is a high-precision technique requiring a highly skilled practitioner. The same technique was used by the same group in another publication in that same year6. In 2010, Eames and colleagues assessed whole blood glucose levels in zebrafish7. They gained access to the blood by performing decapitations with scissors and then inserting a heparinized microcapillary collection tube into the pectoral articulation. They mention difficulties with hemolysis that were solved with an appropriate storage temperature based on the work Kilpatrick et al.8. When attempting to use Jagadeeswaran's technique in our laboratory, we found that it was difficult to make the incision in precisely the right place as not to allow a significant amount of blood to be lost before collection could be started. 
Recently, Gupta et al.9 described how to dissect adult zebrafish organs, Kinkle et al.10 described how to perform intraperitoneal injections, and Pugach et al.11 described how to perform retro-orbital injections. However, more work is needed to more fully explore basic techniques for research in zebrafish.
The small size of zebrafish presents challenges for researchers using it as an experimental model. Furthermore, given this smallness of scale, it is important that simple techniques are developed to enable researchers to explore the advantages of the zebrafish model.

This paper presents a technique for collection of blood from the dorsal aorta of Zebrafish. It also provides instructions for obtaining serum for use in biochemical analyses, such as tests for determining cholesterol and triglyceride levels.

The zebrafish has been used as an animal model for studies of several human diseases. It can serve as a powerful preclinical platform for studies of ...

Isolation of Ribosome Bound Nascent Polypeptides in vitro to Identify Translational Pause Sites Along mRNA

The rate of translational elongation is non-uniform. mRNA secondary structure, codon usage and mRNA associated proteins may alter ribosome movement on the messagefor review see 1. However, it's now widely accepted that synonymous codon usage is the primary cause of non-uniform translational elongation rates1. Synonymous codons are not used with identical frequency. A bias exists in the use of synonymous codons with some codons used more frequently than others2. Codon bias is organism as well as tissue specific2,3. Moreover, frequency of codon usage is directly proportional to the concentrations of cognate tRNAs4. Thus, a frequently used codon will have higher multitude of corresponding tRNAs, which further implies that a frequent codon will be translated faster than an infrequent one. Thus, regions on mRNA enriched in rare codons (potential pause sites) will as a rule slow down ribosome movement on the message and cause accumulation of nascent peptides of the respective sizes5-8. These pause sites can have functional impact on the protein expression, mRNA stability and protein foldingfor review see 9. Indeed, it was shown that alleviation of such pause sites can alter ribosome movement on mRNA and subsequently may affect the efficiency of co-translational (in vivo) protein folding1,7,10,11. To understand the process of protein folding in vivo, in the cell, that is ultimately coupled to the process of protein synthesis it is essential to gain comprehensive insights into the impact of codon usage/tRNA content on the movement of ribosomes along mRNA during translational elongation.
Here we describe a simple technique that can be used to locate major translation pause sites for a given mRNA translated in various cell-free systems6-8. This procedure is based on isolation of nascent polypeptides accumulating on ribosomes during in vitro translation of a target mRNA. The rationale is that at low-frequency codons, the increase in the residence time of the ribosomes results in increased amounts of nascent peptides of the corresponding sizes. In vitro transcribed mRNA is used for in vitro translational reactions in the presence of radioactively labeled amino acids to allow the detection of the nascent chains. In order to isolate ribosome bound nascent polypeptide complexes the translation reaction is layered on top of 30% glycerol solution followed by centrifugation. Nascent polypeptides in polysomal pellet are further treated with ribonuclease A and resolved by SDS PAGE. This technique can be potentially used for any protein and allows analysis of ribosome movement along mRNA and the detection of the major pause sites. Additionally, this protocol can be adapted to study factors and conditions that can alter ribosome movement and thus potentially can also alter the function/conformation of the protein.

Isolation of Ribosome Bound Nascent Polypeptides in vitro to Identify Translational Pause Sites Along mRNA

A technique to identify translational pause sites on mRNA is described. This procedure is based on isolation of nascent polypeptides accumulating on ribosomes during in vitro translation of a target mRNA, followed by the size analysis of the nascent chains using a denaturing gel electrophoresis.

The rate of translational elongation is non-uniform. mRNA secondary structure, codon usage and mRNA associated proteins may alter ribosome movement on the ...

Biochemical and High Throughput Microscopic Assessment of Fat Mass in Caenorhabditis Elegans

The nematode C. elegans has emerged as an important model for the study of conserved genetic pathways regulating fat metabolism as it relates to human obesity and its associated pathologies. Several previous methodologies developed for the visualization of C. elegans triglyceride-rich fat stores have proven to be erroneous, highlighting cellular compartments other than lipid droplets. Other methods require specialized equipment, are time-consuming, or yield inconsistent results. We introduce a rapid, reproducible, fixative-based Nile red staining method for the accurate and rapid detection of neutral lipid droplets in C. elegans. A short fixation step in 40% isopropanol makes animals completely permeable to Nile red, which is then used to stain animals. Spectral properties of this lipophilic dye allow it to strongly and selectively fluoresce in the yellow-green spectrum only when in a lipid-rich environment, but not in more polar environments. Thus, lipid droplets can be visualized on a fluorescent microscope equipped with simple GFP imaging capability after only a brief Nile red staining step in isopropanol. The speed, affordability, and reproducibility of this protocol make it ideally suited for high throughput screens. We also demonstrate a paired method for the biochemical determination of triglycerides and phospholipids using gas chromatography mass-spectrometry. This more rigorous protocol should be used as confirmation of results obtained from the Nile red microscopic lipid determination. We anticipate that these techniques will become new standards in the field of C. elegans metabolic research.

Biochemical and High Throughput Microscopic Assessment of Fat Mass in Caenorhabditis Elegans

We present robust biochemical and microscopic methods for studying Caenorhabditis elegans lipid stores. A rapid, simple, fixing-staining procedure for fluorescent lipid droplet imaging leverages the spectral properties of the lipophilic dye Nile red. We then present biochemical measurement of triglycerides and phospholipids using solid phase extraction and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry.

The nematode C. elegans has emerged as an important  model for the study of conserved genetic pathways regulating fat metabolism as  it relates to human ...

Biochemical Assays for Analyzing Activities of ATP-dependent Chromatin Remodeling Enzymes

Members of the SNF2 family of ATPases often function as components of multi-subunit chromatin remodeling complexes that regulate nucleosome dynamics and DNA accessibility by catalyzing ATP-dependent nucleosome remodeling. Biochemically dissecting the contributions of individual subunits of such complexes to the multi-step ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling reaction requires the use of assays that monitor the production of reaction products and measure the formation of reaction intermediates. This JOVE protocol describes assays that allow one to measure the biochemical activities of chromatin remodeling complexes or subcomplexes containing various combinations of subunits. Chromatin remodeling is measured using an ATP-dependent nucleosome sliding assay, which monitors the movement of a nucleosome on a DNA molecule using an electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA)-based method. Nucleosome binding activity is measured by monitoring the formation of remodeling complex-bound mononucleosomes using a similar EMSA-based method, and DNA- or nucleosome-dependent ATPase activity is assayed using thin layer chromatography (TLC) to measure the rate of conversion of ATP to ADP and phosphate in the presence of either DNA or nucleosomes. Using these assays, one can examine the functions of subunits of a chromatin remodeling complex by comparing the activities of the complete complex to those lacking one or more subunits. The human INO80 chromatin remodeling complex is used as an example; however, the methods described here can be adapted to the study of other chromatin remodeling complexes.

Here we describe biochemical assays that can be used to characterize ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling enzymes for their abilities to 1) catalyze ATP-dependent nucleosome sliding, 2) engage with nucleosome substrates, and 3) hydrolyze ATP in a nucleosome- or DNA-dependent manner.

Members of the SNF2 family of ATPases often function as components of multi-subunit chromatin remodeling complexes that regulate nucleosome dynamics and ...

High-throughput Titration of Luciferase-expressing Recombinant Viruses

Standard plaque assays to determine infectious viral titers can be time consuming, are not amenable to a high volume of samples, and cannot be done with viruses that do not form plaques. As an alternative to plaque assays, we have developed a high-throughput titration method that allows for the simultaneous titration of a high volume of samples in a single day. This approach involves infection of the samples with a Firefly luciferase tagged virus, transfer of the infected samples onto an appropriate permissive cell line, subsequent addition of luciferin, reading of plates in order to obtain luminescence readings, and finally the conversion from luminescence to viral titers. The assessment of cytotoxicity using a metabolic viability dye can be easily incorporated in the workflow in parallel and provide valuable information in the context of a drug screen. This technique provides a reliable, high-throughput method to determine viral titers as an alternative to a standard plaque assay.

This article presents a high-throughput luciferase expression-based method of titrating various RNA and DNA viruses using automated and manual liquid handlers.

Standard plaque assays to determine infectious viral titers can be time consuming, are not amenable to a high volume of samples, and cannot be done with ...

Growth-based Determination and Biochemical Confirmation of Genetic Requirements for Protein Degradation in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Regulated protein degradation is crucial for virtually every cellular function. Much of what is known about the molecular mechanisms and genetic requirements for eukaryotic protein degradation was initially established in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Classical analyses of protein degradation have relied on biochemical pulse-chase and cycloheximide-chase methodologies. While these techniques provide sensitive means for observing protein degradation, they are laborious, time-consuming, and low-throughput. These approaches are not amenable to rapid or large-scale screening for mutations that prevent protein degradation. Here, a yeast growth-based assay for the facile identification of genetic requirements for protein degradation is described. In this assay, a reporter enzyme required for growth under specific selective conditions is fused to an unstable protein. Cells lacking the endogenous reporter enzyme but expressing the fusion protein can grow under selective conditions only when the fusion protein is stabilized (i.e. when protein degradation is compromised). In the growth assay described here, serial dilutions of wild-type and mutant yeast cells harboring a plasmid encoding a fusion protein are spotted onto selective and non-selective medium. Growth under selective conditions is consistent with degradation impairment by a given mutation. Increased protein abundance should be biochemically confirmed. A method for the rapid extraction of yeast proteins in a form suitable for electrophoresis and western blotting is also demonstrated. A growth-based readout for protein stability, combined with a simple protocol for protein extraction for biochemical analysis, facilitates rapid identification of genetic requirements for protein degradation. These techniques can be adapted to monitor degradation of a variety of short-lived proteins. In the example presented, the His3 enzyme, which is required for histidine biosynthesis, was fused to Deg1-Sec62. Deg1-Sec62 is targeted for degradation after it aberrantly engages the endoplasmic reticulum translocon. Cells harboring Deg1-Sec62-His3 were able to grow under selective conditions when the protein was stabilized.

Growth-based Determination and Biochemical Confirmation of Genetic Requirements for Protein Degradation in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

This article describes a yeast growth-based assay for the determination of genetic requirements for protein degradation. It also demonstrates a method for rapid extraction of yeast proteins, suitable for western blotting to biochemically confirm degradation requirements. These techniques can be adapted to monitor degradation of a variety of proteins.

Biochemical Titration of Glycogen In vitro

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