We greatly acknowledge Thierry Galli (Center of Psychiatry and Neurosciences, INSERM) for providing the VAMP7-pHluorin plasmid. We thank Tarn Duong for advice on statistical analysis and members of the GOUD laboratory for fruitful discussions. The authors greatly acknowledge the Cell and Tissue Imaging Facility (PICT-IBiSA @Burg, PICT-EM @Burg and PICT-IBiSA @Pasteur) and Nikon Imaging Center, Institut Curie (Paris), member of the French National Research Infrastructure France-BioImaging (ANR10-INBS-04). H.L. was supported by the Association pour la Recherche sur le Cancer (ARC) and P.M. received funding from the European Union&#8217;s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under Marie Sk&#322;odowska-Curie grant agreement No 666003. This work was supported by grants from INFECT-ERA (ANR-14-IFEC-0002-04), the Labex CelTisPhyBio (ANR-10-LBX-0038) and Idex Paris Sciences et Lettres (ANR-10-IDEX-0001-02 PSL), as well as the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique and Institut Curie.&#160;

1. Preparation of micropatterned cells
<ol>
	<li>Transfection of cells
	<ol>
		<li>One day before transfection, seed 2.5 x 106 hTERT-RPE1 cells into one well of a 12 well plate (2 x 2 cm) in 1 mL of medium.</li>
		<li>On the day of transfection, prepare the transfection mixture with VAMP7-pHluorin plasmid (100 &#181;L of buffer, 0.8 &#181;g of DNA, 3 &#181;L of transfection mixture). Incubate for 10 min. 
		NOTE: VAMP7 is a lysosomal v-SNARE, fused with a luminal pHluorin tag. The pHluorin probe is quenched by low pH, but during exocytosis protons are released and pHluorin starts emitting a signal10,11.</li>
		<li>Add the transfection mix to the cells in their medium.</li>
		<li>Change the medium 4 h after adding the transfection mix on the cells.</li>
		<li>Use the cells for experiments during the next 24&#8211;48 h.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Micropattern preparation (photolithography method)
	<ol>
		<li>Wash the coverslips (25 mm of diameter) in ethanol and let them dry for 5 min.</li>
		<li>Activate coverslips by illumination under deep UV for 5 min.</li>
		<li>Create a humid chamber by thoroughly humidifying a paper towel on which a paraffin film is placed. Add drops (30 &#956;L for 22 mm coverslip) of Poly-L-Lysine-graft-Polyethylene Glycol (PLL-g-PEG) solution (0.1 mg/mL, 10 mM HEPES, pH = 7.4) and place coverslips with the activated surface on them. Close the humid chamber with a top and incubate coverslips for 1 h.</li>
		<li>Wash coverslips 2x in PBS and 1x in distilled water and let them dry.</li>
		<li>Wash the quartz photomask with distilled water and then with ethanol or propanol. Dry the photomask with filtered airflow. 
		NOTE: The quartz photomask is coated on one side with antireflective chrome that contains holes in the form of micropatterns. A photomask containing ring-shaped micropatterns of 37 &#181;m is used in this protocol. When deep UV is shined on the photomask, the light can only pass through these holes12.</li>
		<li>Expose the photomask (chrome-coated side) to deep UV for 5 min to clean the surface.</li>
		<li>Add small water drops (10 &#181;L for a 20 mm coverslip) on the chrome-coated side of the photomask. Place the coverslip with their PLL-g-PEG-treated side on the drop and dry the extra water. Make sure that no air bubbles form between the mask and the coverslips. 
		NOTE: The capillary force of the water will immobilize the coverslips.</li>
		<li>Expose the photomask to deep UV for 5 min with the non-chrome-coated side up (the coverslips are attached on the lower surface). 
		NOTE: The light can only pass through the holes and modify the PLL-g-PEG-treated surface of coverslips below the photomask.</li>
		<li>Remove the coverslips from the photomask by adding excess water. 
		NOTE: Coverslips should quickly float off.</li>
		<li>Incubate the coverslips in a solution of extracellular matrix proteins (50 &#956;g/mL of fibronectin, 5 &#956;g/mL of fluorescent fibrinogen diluted in water) on paraffin film in a humid chamber (as in step 1.2.3) for 1 h under a laminar flow hood to avoid contamination. 
		NOTE: The experiment can be paused at this point by storing the coverslips in PBS at 4 &#176;C.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Cell seeding on micropatterned surfaces
	<ol>
		<li>Use a magnetic coverslip holder that fits the size of the micropatterned coverslips to mount the coverslips. On the day of acquisition, heat the coverslip holder to 37 &#176;C to avoid thermal shock for the cells during subsequent steps.</li>
		<li>Prepare the pattern medium by supplementing DMEM/F12 medium with 20 mM HEPES and 2% of penicillin/streptomycin.</li>
		<li>Place coverslips into the holder with the micropatterned side up and add pattern medium as soon as the coverslip is on the holder base. Add the seal and immobilize with the magnetic device. Fill the coverslip holder with the pattern medium and close it with the glass lid. 
		NOTE: Be quick, to not allow the coverslip to dry. Do not wash the coverslip holder with ethanol between experiments, because the seal might retain some ethanol, which can react with PLL-g-PEG and result in cell stress. Wash the coverslip holder only with soapy water. Moreover, the joint can be incubated in the pattern medium at 37 &#176;C for 1 h to dilute residual product.</li>
		<li>Collect transfected hTERT-RPE1 cells by trypsinization (0.5 mL for one 12 well plate) and add 1 mL of 10% FBS DMEM/F12 medium.</li>
		<li>Add 0.5 x 106 transfected hTERT-RPE1 cells to the coverslip holder and reclose it. Incubate for 10 min in the incubator.</li>
		<li>Wash the coverslip holder 5x with pattern medium to remove nonattached cells and residual FBS by adding the pattern medium with one pipette and aspirating the medium with another pipette to create a washing flow. Always keep a small volume of pattern medium in the coverslip holder to avoid drying of the cells on the micropatterned coverslip, which will lead to cell death.</li>
		<li>Incubate in the incubator for 3 h to allow full cell spreading.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
2. Acquisition of exocytosis data
<ol>
	<li>Imaging of exocytosis events
	<ol>
		<li>Place coverslip holder under a TIRM. The signal has to be detected by a sensitive camera set up with the best imaging format available. 
		NOTE:&#160;In this experiment, a 100x lens objective and an EMCCD camera with 512 x 512 pixel detection region was used giving rise to a pixel size of 160 nm.</li>
		<li>Search for a cell expressing VAMP7-pHluorin that is fully spread (Figure 1A). 
		NOTE: Cells expressing VAMP7 are clearly identifiable, because they exhibit a green signal.</li>
		<li>Change the angle of the laser until a TIRF angle that allows the visualization of VAMP7-pHluorin exocytosis events is reached. Perform a 5 min acquisition at a frequency compatible with the exocytosis rate and time scale (typically 3 Hz, Figure 1D) using the microscope software. 
		NOTE: hTERT-RPE1 cells have a lysosomal secretory rate of around 0.3 Hz on micropatterns. Lysosomal exocytosis has a typical duration of 1 s. It is characterized by a peak intensity followed by an exponential decay. The diffusion of the probe should be evident at this time (Figure 1B, C).</li>
		<li>For each cell, also perform an acquisition of the micropattern using the microscope software (Figure 1A).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Acquisition of exocytosis coordinates
	<ol>
		<li>Open the acquired movie with ImageJ/FIJI. Use File | Import | Image Sequence. Find exocytosis events by eye. An exocytosis event is characterized by the appearance of a bright signal that spreads outwards (Figure 1).</li>
		<li>Use the point tool to mark the center of the exocytic event. Use Analyze | Measure to measure X and Y coordinates, as well as the temporal coordinate (slice number). Perform these measurements for all exocytosis events of the movie.</li>
		<li>Save the results (Results | File | Save As). Prepare a text file for each analyzed cell named &#8220;Results(cell_name).txt&#8221; that contains the slice, X coordinates, and Y coordinates for all exocytosis events in that order. 
		 
		The text file is supposed to look like this: 
		ID&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; X&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Y&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Feret&#39;s diameter&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Radius 
		RPE1_WT_Cell1&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; 167&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; 136&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; 230&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; 115 
		RPE1_WT_Cell2&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; 164&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; 160&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; 230&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; 115 
		 
		NOTE: Be careful to replace all commas with points.</li>
		<li>Measure the center and diameter of each cell using the &#8220;Oval Tool&#8221;. Fit a perfect circle (do not use an oval) and use &#8220;Measure&#8221; to obtain the X and Y coordinates and Feret&#39;s diameter. Save each cell&#8217;s identity (ID), X and Y coordinates, Feret&#8217;s diameter, and radius (diameter/2) in a text file named &#8220;Spherical parameter.txt&#8221;. 
		 
		The text file is supposed to look like this: 
		ID&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; X&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Y&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Feret&#39;s diameter&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Radius 
		RPE1_WT_Cell1&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; 167&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; 136&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; 230&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; 115 
		RPE1_WT_Cell2&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; 164&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; 160&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; 230&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; 115 
		 
		NOTE: Be careful to replace all commas with points.</li>
		<li>Measure the thickness of the micropattern ring (adhesion length) with the straight tool and save the cell ID, cell radius (from the file: &#8220;Spherical parameter.txt&#8221;), and adhesion length in a text file named &#8220;Pattern parameter.txt&#8221;. Calculate the normalized adhesion length by dividing the adhesion length by cell radius. 
		NOTE: Be careful to replace all commas by points. 
		 
		The file should look like this: 
		ID&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Cell radius&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; adhesion length&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; Normalized adhesion length 
		RPE1_WT_Cell1&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; 115&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; 34&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; 0.295652174 
		RPE1_WT_Cell2&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; 115&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; 35&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; 0.304347826</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
3. Single cell spatial analysis
<ol>
	<li>R package and installation 
	NOTE: The R package for this analysis takes advantage of the Spatstat package13 to compute the two-dimensional (2D) density and Ripley&#8217;s K function. The code is open-source and uses text files that have been previously described.
	<ol>
		<li>Download and install R from https://www.r-project.org/ (version 3.5.2 was used in this analysis).</li>
		<li>Download the package (and the demo dataset) from: https://github.com/GoudTeam/JoVE-paper</li>
		<li>Install the package on R Studio using &#8220;Tools&#8221; using &#8220;Install Packages&#8221;. Select &#8220;Package Archive File (.zip; .tar.gz)&#8221; for the category &#8220;Install from:&#8221; and choose the package file. Press &#8220;Install&#8221;.</li>
		<li>Load the package with the function &#8220;library(&#34;ExocytosisSpatialAnalysis&#34;)&#8221; by writing this command in R studio and pressing &#8220;Enter&#8221;.</li>
		<li>Run the package with the function &#8220;ESA()&#8221; by writing this command in R studio and pressing &#8220;Enter&#8221;. 
		NOTE: A user interface will open.</li>
		<li>Select the directory for the dataset (.txt files) and a directory for output plots. 
		NOTE: Parameters of the analysis (see text below) can be changed through a user interface.</li>
		<li>This script will automatically start and perform the analysis. It provides .pdf files of corresponding plots and .txt files containing numerical results.&#160;</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

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The authors have nothing to disclose.

We monitored exocytosis events from the lysosomal compartment by TIRFM live cell imaging of VAMP7-pHluorin in ring-shaped micropattern-normalized cells and performed a rigorous statistical analysis of the spatial parameters of exocytosis events. Employing the transformed Ripley&#8217;s K function and a statistical test based on the nearest neighbor distance, we confirmed that secretion from lysosomes is not a random process8,9. Both statistical analyses convincin...

Exocytosis is a universal cellular process in which a vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane and releases its content. The vesicle can either fuse totally with the plasma membrane (full fusion) or create a fusion pore that stays open during a limited time (kiss-and-run)1. For instance, newly synthesized proteins are released into the extracellular medium from vesicles that come from the Golgi complex. This biosynthetic, anterograde pathway is primordial, especially in multicellular organisms, to secrete signaling peptides (e.g., hormones, neurotransmitters) and extracellular matrix components (e.g., collagen), as well as to traffic transmembrane proteins to the plasma membrane. Additionally, secretions can occur from different endosomes: 1) recycling endosomes in order to reuse transmembrane proteins; 2) multivesicular bodies (MVBs) to release exosomes; and 3) lysosomes for the release of proteolytic enzymes. Endosomal secretion has been shown to be important for neurite outgrowth, pseudopodia formation, plasma membrane repair, and ATP-dependent signaling2.
To study exocytosis at the single cell level, several techniques have been employed. Patch-clamp allows for the detection of single exocytosis events with a high temporal resolution in a wide variety of living cells3. However, this method does not provide information on the localization of exocytosis events, nor from which compartment it occurs. Electron microscopy allows direct visualization of exocytic events with high spatial resolution, and in combination with immunolabeling provides information about the specificity of the compartments and molecules involved. A disadvantage of this approach is the lack of information on the dynamics of the process, as well as its inability to perform high-throughput studies. Light microscopy approaches such as total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy (TIRFM), which exploits the evanescent field to illuminate fluorophores at the vicinity of the coverslip (100 nm), provides good temporal and spatial resolution to study exocytosis events. However, this method is only compatible with adherent cells and can only be applied to the ventral/inferior part of cells.
Of note, the plasma membrane reveals significant heterogeneity based on adhesive complexes that are present only in restricted areas. This heterogeneity restricts, for instance, the uptake of different ligands4. Similarly, it has recently been reported that secretion from the Golgi complex is concentrated at &#8220;hot spots&#8221; in the plasma membrane5. Moreover, it is known that certain cargos are secreted through focal-adhesion-associated exocytosis6. Thus, special attention should be paid to the question of whether exocytosis events are randomly distributed in space, or whether they are concentrated at specific areas of the plasma membrane. Several statistical tools based on Ripley&#8217;s K function have been proposed to explore these questions7,8,9. Our approach combines these tools with micropatterning to control cell shape and plasma membrane heterogeneity. In addition to providing a means to distinguish between adhesive and nonadhesive areas, this technique also allows comparison across different cells and conditions and increases the power of statistical analyses.
Here we employ a variety of statistical tools to study the spatial distribution of exocytosis events from the lysosomal compartment monitored by TIRFM live cell imaging of VAMP7-pHluorin in ring-shaped micropattern-normalized hTert-RPE1 cells. It was confirmed that secretion from lysosomes is not a random process8,9 and that exocytosis events exhibit clustering. Of note, we found that exocytosis events are also clustered in nonadhesive areas, indicating that adhesion molecules are not the only structures that can induce secretory hot spots at the plasma membrane. Nevertheless, cell adhesion did enhance clustering. Consistently, our analysis identified enriched areas of exocytosis that were located at the border between the adhesive and nonadhesive areas.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:1512px;" width="1511">
	<colgroup>
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
	</colgroup>
	<tbody>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;width:244px;">Chamlide Magnetic Chamber</td>
			<td style="width:259px;">Chamlide</td>
			<td style="width:207px;"></td>
			<td style="width:803px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;width:244px;">DMEM/F12</td>
			<td style="width:259px;">Gibco</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">21041-025</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;width:244px;">Fibrinogen</td>
			<td>Molecular Probes, Invitrogen</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">F35200</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;width:244px;">Fibronectin bovine plasma</td>
			<td style="width:259px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">F1141</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;width:244px;">HEPES (1M)</td>
			<td style="width:259px;">Gibco</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">15630-056</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;width:244px;">hTert RPE1 cell line</td>
			<td style="width:259px;">https://www.atcc.org</td>
			<td style="width:207px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;width:244px;">ImageJ</td>
			<td style="width:259px;">http://rsbweb.nih.gov/ij/</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">n/a</td>
			<td>Authored by W. Rasband, NIH/NIMH</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="50">
			<td height="50" style="height:50px;width:244px;">JetPRIME Transfection reagent</td>
			<td style="width:259px;">Polyplus</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">114-07</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;width:244px;">Penicilin/Streptomycin</td>
			<td style="width:259px;">Gibco</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">15140-122</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;width:244px;">Photomask</td>
			<td style="width:259px;">Delta Mask</td>
			<td style="width:207px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;width:244px;">PLL-g-PEG solution</td>
			<td style="width:259px;">Surface Solutions</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">PLL(20)-g[3.5]- PEG(2)</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;width:244px;">R Software</td>
			<td style="width:259px;">https://www.r-project.org/</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">n/a</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;width:244px;">Trypsin (TrypLE Express 1X)</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">12605-010</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;width:244px;">UV ozone oven</td>
			<td style="width:259px;">Jelight Company Inc</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">342-220</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="125">
			<td height="125" style="height:125px;width:244px;">VAMP7-pHFluorin plasmid</td>
			<td style="width:259px;">n/a</td>
			<td style="width:207px;">n/a</td>
			<td style="width:803px;">Paper reference :http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=Role+of+HRB+in+clathrin-dependent+endocytosis. 
			J Biol Chem. 2008 Dec 5;283(49):34365-73. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M804587200. 
			Role of HRB in clathrin-dependent endocytosis. 
			Chaineau M, Danglot L, Proux-Gillardeaux V, Galli T.</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

quantifying spatiotemporal parameters of cellular exocytosis in micropatterned cells

Live imaging of the pHluorin tagged Soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive-factor Attachment protein REceptor (v-SNARE) Vesicle-associated membrane protein 7 (VAMP7) by total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy (TIRFM) is a straightforward way to explore secretion from the lysosomal compartment. Taking advantage of cell culture on micropatterned surfaces to normalize cell shape, a variety of statistical tools were employed to perform a spatial analysis of secretory patterns. Using Ripley&#8217;s K function and a statistical test based on the nearest neighbor distance (NND), we confirmed that secretion from lysosomes is not a random process but shows significant clustering. Of note, our analysis revealed that exocytosis events are also clustered in nonadhesion areas, indicating that adhesion molecules are not the only structures that can induce secretory hot spots at the plasma membrane. Still, we found that cell adhesion enhances clustering. In addition to precisely defined adhesive and nonadhesive areas, the circular geometry of these micropatterns allows the use of polar coordinates, simplifying analyses. We used Kernel Density Estimation (KDE) and the cumulative distribution function on polar coordinates of exocytosis events to identify enriched areas of exocytosis. In ring-shaped micropattern cells, clustering occurred at the border between the adhesive and nonadhesive areas. Our analysis illustrates how statistical tools can be employed to investigate spatial distributions of diverse biological processes.

The spatiotemporal characteristics of exocytosis events were analyzed from lysosomes visualized by VAMP7-pHluorin10,11 in hTert-RPE1 cells. hTert-RPE1 cells are nontransformed cells that adopt well to micropatterning and have been extensively used in previous micropattern-based studies4,14. VAMP7 is a lysosomal v-SNARE15 that was tagged with the super ecliptic pHluorin at its N-ter...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Quantifying Spatiotemporal Parameters of Cellular Exocytosis in Micropatterned Cells at JoVE.com

Quantifying Spatiotemporal Parameters of Cellular Exocytosis in Micropatterned Cells

Live imaging of lysosomal exocytosis on micropatterned cells allows a spatial quantification of this process. Morphology normalization using micropatterns is an outstanding tool to uncover general rules about the spatial distribution of cellular processes.

Live imaging of the pHluorin tagged Soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive-factor Attachment protein REceptor (v-SNARE) Vesicle-associated membrane protein 7 ...

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6.0K Views.  Institut Curie, 75005 Paris, France. Live imaging of lysosomal exocytosis on micropatterned cells allows a spatial quantification of this process. Morphology normalization using micropatterns is an outstanding tool to uncover general rules about the spatial distribution of cellular processes.

Video: Quantifying Spatiotemporal Parameters of Cellular Exocytosis in Micropatterned Cells

Measuring Exocytosis in Neurons Using FM Labeling

The ability to measure the kinetics of vesicle release can help provide insight into some of the basics of neurotransmission.  Here we used real-time imaging of vesicles labeled with FM dye to monitor the rate of presynaptic vesicle release.  FM4-64 is a red fluorescent amphiphilic styryl dye that embeds into the membranes of synaptic vesicles as endocytosis is stimulated.  Lipophilic interactions cause the dye to greatly increase in fluorescence, thus emitting a bright signal when associated with vesicles and a nominal one when in the extracellular fluid. After a wash step is used to help remove external dye within the plasma membrane, the remaining FM is concentrated within the vesicles and is then expelled when exocytosis is induced by another round of electrical stimulation. The rate of vesicles release is measured from the resulting decrease in fluorescence.  Since FM dye can be applied external and transiently, it is a useful tool for determining rates of exocytosis in neuronal cultures, especially when comparing the rates between transfected synapses and neighboring control boutons.



The ability to measure the kinetics of vesicle release can help provide insight into some of the basics of neurotransmission. Here we used real-time imaging of vesicles labeled with the red fluorescent dye FM 4-64 to measure the rate of presynaptic vesicle release in hippocampal neuronal cultures.

Pomiar egzocytozy w Neurony Korzystanie FM etykietowania

The ability to measure the kinetics of vesicle release can help provide insight into some of the basics of neurotransmission.  Here we used real-time ...

Quantifying Yeast Chronological Life Span by Outgrowth of Aged Cells

The budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae has proven to be an important model organism in the field of aging research 1. The replicative and chronological life spans are two established paradigms used to study aging in yeast. Replicative aging is defined as the number of daughter cells a single yeast mother cell produces before senescence; chronological aging is defined by the length of time cells can survive in a non-dividing, quiescence-like state 2. We have developed a high-throughput method for quantitative measurement of chronological life span. This method involves aging the cells in a defined medium under agitation and at constant temperature. At each age-point, a sub-population of cells is removed from the aging culture and inoculated into rich growth medium. A high-resolution growth curve is then obtained for this sub-population of aged cells using a Bioscreen C MBR machine. An algorithm is then applied to determine the relative proportion of viable cells in each sub-population based on the growth kinetics at each age-point. This method requires substantially less time and resources compared to other chronological lifespan assays while maintaining reproducibility and precision. The high-throughput nature of this assay should allow for large-scale genetic and chemical screens to identify novel longevity modifiers for further testing in more complex organisms.

Chronological aging in yeast refers to the loss of cell viability associated with time in stationary phase. Here we describe a high-throughput method for quantitatively determining yeast chronological life span.

The budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae has proven to be an important model organism in the field of aging research 1. The replicative and ...

Imaging Exocytosis in Retinal Bipolar Cells with TIRF Microscopy

Total internal reflectance fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy is a technique that allows the study of events happening at the cell membrane, by selective imaging of fluorescent molecules that are closest to a high refractive index substance such as glass1. In this article, we apply this technique to image exocytosis of synaptic vesicles in retinal bipolar cells isolated from the goldfish retina. These neurons are very suitable for this kind of study due to their large axon terminals. By simultaneously patch clamping the bipolar cells, it is possible to investigate the relationship between pre-synaptic voltage and synaptic release2,3. Synaptic vesicles inside the bipolar cell terminals are loaded with a fluorescent dye (FM 1-43&reg;) by co-puffing the dye and a ringer solution containing a high K+ concentration onto the synaptic terminals. This depolarizes the cells and stimulates endocytosis and consequent dye uptake into the glutamatergic vesicles. After washing the excess dye away for around 30 minutes, cells are ready for being patch clamped and imaged simultaneously with a 488 nm laser. The patch pipette solution contains a rhodamine-based peptide that binds selectively to the synaptic ribbon protein RIBEYE4, thereby labeling ribbons specifically when terminals are imaged with a 561 nm laser. This allows the precise localization of active zones and the separation of synaptic from extra-synaptic events.

In this video, we demonstrate how to label and visualize single synaptic vesicle exocytosis and trafficking in goldfish retinal bipolar cells using total internal reflectance fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy.

Total internal reflectance fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy is a technique that allows the study of events happening at the cell membrane, by selective ...

Quantifying the Frequency of Tumor-propagating Cells Using Limiting Dilution Cell Transplantation in Syngeneic Zebrafish

Self-renewing cancer cells are the only cell types within a tumor that have an unlimited ability to promote tumor growth, and are thus known as tumor-propagating cells, or tumor-initiating cells. It is thought that targeting these self-renewing cells for destruction will block tumor progression and stop relapse, greatly improving patient prognosis1. The most common way to determine the frequency of self-renewing cells within a tumor is a limiting dilution cell transplantation assay, in which tumor cells are transplanted into recipient animals at increasing doses; the proportion of animals that develop tumors is used the calculate the number of self-renewing cells within the original tumor sample2, 3. Ideally, a large number of animals would be used in each limiting dilution experiment to accurately determine the frequency of tumor-propagating cells. However, large scale experiments involving mice are costly, and most limiting dilution assays use only 10-15 mice per experiment. 
Zebrafish have gained prominence as a cancer model, in large part due to their ease of genetic manipulation and the economy by which large scale experiments can be performed. Additionally, the cancer types modeled in zebrafish have been found to closely mimic their counterpart human disease4. While it is possible to transplant tumor cells from one fish to another by sub-lethal irradiation of recipient animals, the regeneration of the immune system after 21 days often causes tumor regression5. The recent creation of syngeneic zebrafish has greatly facilitated tumor transplantation studies 6-8. Because these animals are genetically identical, transplanted tumor cells engraft robustly into recipient fish, and tumor growth can be monitored over long periods of time. Syngeneic zebrafish are ideal for limiting dilution transplantation assays in that tumor cells do not have to adapt to growth in a foreign microenvironment, which may underestimate self-renewing cell frequency9, 10. Additionally, one-cell transplants have been successfully completed using syngeneic zebrafish8 and several hundred animals can be easily and economically transplanted at one time, both of which serve to provide a more accurate estimate of self-renewing cell frequency.
Here, a method is presented for creating primary, fluorescently-labeled T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (T-ALL) in syngeneic zebrafish, and transplanting these tumors at limiting dilution into adult fish to determine self-renewing cell frequency. While leukemia is provided as an example, this protocol is suitable to determine the frequency of tumor-propagating cells using any cancer model in the zebrafish.

Limiting dilution cell transplantation assays are used to determine the frequency of tumor-propagating cells. This protocol describes a method for generating syngeneic zebrafish that develop fluorescently-labeled leukemia and details how to isolate and transplant these leukemia cells at limiting dilution into the peritoneal cavity of adult zebrafish.

Self-renewing cancer cells are the only cell types within a tumor that have an unlimited ability to promote tumor growth, and are thus known as ...

Mechanical Stimulation-induced Calcium Wave Propagation in Cell Monolayers: The Example of Bovine Corneal Endothelial Cells

Intercellular communication is essential for the coordination of physiological processes between cells in a variety of organs and tissues, including the brain, liver, retina, cochlea and vasculature. In experimental settings, intercellular Ca2+-waves can be elicited by applying a mechanical stimulus to a single cell. This leads to the release of the intracellular signaling molecules IP3 and Ca2+ that initiate the propagation of the Ca2+-wave concentrically from the mechanically stimulated cell to the neighboring cells. The main molecular pathways that control intercellular Ca2+-wave propagation are provided by gap junction channels through the direct transfer of IP3 and by hemichannels through the release of ATP. Identification and characterization of the properties and regulation of different connexin and pannexin isoforms as gap junction channels and hemichannels are allowed by the quantification of the spread of the intercellular Ca2+-wave, siRNA, and the use of inhibitors of gap junction channels and hemichannels. Here, we describe a method to measure intercellular Ca2+-wave in monolayers of primary corneal endothelial cells loaded with Fluo4-AM in response to a controlled and localized mechanical stimulus provoked by an acute, short-lasting deformation of the cell as a result of touching the cell membrane with a micromanipulator-controlled glass micropipette with a tip diameter of less than 1 &mu;m. We also describe the isolation of primary bovine corneal endothelial cells and its use as model system to assess Cx43-hemichannel activity as the driven force for intercellular Ca2+-waves through the release of ATP. Finally, we discuss the use, advantages, limitations and alternatives of this method in the context of gap junction channel and hemichannel research.

Intercellular Ca2+-waves are driven by gap junction channels and hemichannels. Here, we describe a method to measure intercellular Ca2+-waves in cell monolayers in response to a local single-cell mechanical stimulus and its application to investigate the properties and regulation of gap junction channels and hemichannels.

Intercellular communication is essential for the coordination of physiological processes between cells in a variety of organs and tissues, including the ...

Spatiotemporal Mapping of Motility in Ex Vivo Preparations of the Intestines

Multiple approaches have been used to record and evaluate gastrointestinal motility including: recording changes in muscle tension, intraluminal pressure, and membrane potential. All of these approaches depend on measurement of activity at one or multiple locations along the gut simultaneously which are then interpreted to provide a sense of overall motility patterns. Recently, the development of video recording and spatiotemporal mapping (STmap) techniques have made it possible to observe and analyze complex patterns in ex vivo whole segments of colon and intestine. Once recorded and digitized, video records can be converted to STmaps in which the luminal diameter is converted to grayscale or color [called diameter maps (Dmaps)]. STmaps can provide data on motility direction (i.e., stationary, peristaltic, antiperistaltic), velocity, duration, frequency and strength of contractile motility patterns. Advantages of this approach include: analysis of interaction or simultaneous development of different motility patterns in different regions of the same segment, visualization of motility pattern changes over time, and analysis of how activity in one region influences activity in another region. Video recordings can be replayed with different timescales and analysis parameters so that separate STmaps and motility patterns can be analyzed in more detail. This protocol specifically details the effects of intraluminal fluid distension and intraluminal stimuli that affect motility generation. The use of luminal receptor agonists and antagonists provides mechanistic information on how specific patterns are initiated and how one pattern can be converted into another pattern. The technique is limited by the ability to only measure motility that causes changes in luminal diameter, without providing data on intraluminal pressure changes or muscle tension, and by the generation of artifacts based upon experimental setup; although, analysis methods can account for these issues. When compared to previous techniques the video recording and STmap approach provides a more comprehensive understanding of gastrointestinal motility.

Spatiotemporal Mapping of Motility in Ex Vivo Preparations of the Intestines

Recently available video recording and spatiotemporal mapping (STmap) techniques make it possible to visualize and quantify both propagating and mixing patterns of intestinal motility. The goal of this protocol is to explain the generation and analysis of STmaps using the GastroIntestinal Motility Monitoring (GIMM) system.

Multiple approaches have been used to record and evaluate gastrointestinal motility including: recording changes in muscle tension, intraluminal pressure, ...

Kinematic Analysis of Cell Division and Expansion: Quantifying the Cellular Basis of Growth and Sampling Developmental Zones in Zea mays Leaves

Growth analyses are often used in plant science to investigate contrasting genotypes and the effect of environmental conditions. The cellular aspect of these analyses is of crucial importance, because growth is driven by cell division and cell elongation. Kinematic analysis represents a methodology to quantify these two processes. Moreover, this technique is easy to use in non-specialized laboratories. Here, we present a protocol for performing a kinematic analysis in monocotyledonous maize (Zea mays) leaves. Two aspects are presented: (1) the quantification of cell division and expansion parameters, and (2) the determination of the location of the developmental zones. This could serve as a basis for sampling design and/or could be useful for data interpretation of biochemical and molecular measurements with high spatial resolution in the leaf growth zone. The growth zone of maize leaves is harvested during steady-state growth. Individual leaves are used for meristem length determination using a DAPI stain and cell-length profiles using DIC microscopy. The protocol is suited for emerged monocotyledonous leaves harvested during steady-state growth, with growth zones spanning at least several centimeters. To improve the understanding of plant growth regulation, data on growth and molecular studies must be combined. Therefore, an important advantage of kinematic analysis is the possibility to correlate changes at the molecular level to well-defined stages of cellular development. Furthermore, it allows for a more focused sampling of specified developmental stages, which is useful in case of limited budget or time.

Kinematic Analysis of Cell Division and Expansion: Quantifying the Cellular Basis of Growth and Sampling Developmental Zones in Zea mays Leaves

Quantifying cell division and expansion is of crucial importance to the understanding of whole-plant growth. Here, we present a protocol to calculate cellular parameters determining maize leaf growth rates and highlight the use of these data for investigating molecular growth regulatory mechanisms by directing developmental stage-specific sampling strategies.

Growth analyses are often used in plant science to investigate contrasting genotypes and the effect of environmental conditions. The cellular aspect of ...

Spatiotemporal Analysis of Cytokinetic Events in Fission Yeast

Cytokinesis, the final step in cell division is critical for maintaining genome integrity. Proper cytokinesis is important for cell differentiation and development. Cytokinesis involves a series of events that are well coordinated in time and space. Cytokinesis involves the formation of an actomyosin ring at the division site, followed by ring constriction, membrane furrow formation and extra cellular matrix remodeling. The fission yeast, Schizosaccharomyces pombe (S.&#160;pombe)&#160;is a well-studied model system that has revealed with substantial clarity the initial events in cytokinesis. However, we do not understand clearly how different cytokinetic events are coordinated spatiotemporally. To determine this, one needs to analyze the different cytokinetic events in great details in both time and in space. Here we describe a microscopy approach to examine different cytokinetic events in live cells. With this approach it is possible to time different cytokinetic events and determine the time of recruitment of different proteins during cytokinesis. In addition, we describe protocols to compare protein localization, and distribution at the site of cell division. This is a basic protocol to study cytokinesis in fission yeast and can also be used for other yeasts and fungal systems.

The fission yeast, Schizosaccharomyces pombe&#160;is an excellent model system to study cytokinesis, the final stage in cell division. Here we describe a microscopy approach to analyze different cytokinetic events in live fission yeast cells.

Cytokinesis, the final step in cell division is critical for maintaining genome integrity. Proper cytokinesis is important for cell differentiation and ...

A Graphical User Interface for Software-assisted Tracking of Protein Concentration in Dynamic Cellular Protrusions

Filopodia are dynamic, finger-like cellular protrusions associated with migration and cell-cell communication. In order to better understand the complex signaling mechanisms underlying filopodial initiation, elongation and subsequent stabilization or retraction, it is crucial to determine the spatio-temporal protein activity in these dynamic structures. To analyze protein function in filopodia, we recently developed a semi-automated tracking algorithm that adapts to filopodial shape-changes, thus allowing parallel analysis of protrusion dynamics and relative protein concentration along the whole filopodial length. Here, we present a detailed step-by-step protocol for optimized cell handling, image acquisition and software analysis. We further provide instructions for the use of optional features during image analysis and data representation, as well as troubleshooting guidelines for all critical steps along the way. Finally, we also include a comparison of the described image analysis software with other programs available for filopodia quantification. Together, the presented protocol provides a framework for accurate analysis of protein dynamics in filopodial protrusions using image analysis software.

We present a software solution for semi-automated tracking of relative protein concentration along the length of dynamic cellular protrusions.

Filopodia are dynamic, finger-like cellular protrusions associated with migration and cell-cell communication. In order to better understand the complex ...

Transient Expression and Cellular Localization of Recombinant Proteins in Cultured Insect Cells

Heterologous protein expression systems are used for the production of recombinant proteins, the interpretation of cellular trafficking/localization, and the determination of the biochemical function of proteins at the sub-organismal level. Although baculovirus expression systems are increasingly used for protein production in numerous biotechnological, pharmaceutical, and industrial applications, nonlytic systems that do not involve viral infection have clear benefits but are often overlooked and underutilized. Here, we describe a method for generating nonlytic expression vectors and transient recombinant protein expression. This protocol allows for the efficient cellular localization of recombinant proteins and can be used to rapidly discern protein trafficking within the cell. We show the expression of four&#160;recombinant proteins in a commercially available insect cell line, including two aquaporin proteins from the insect Bemisia tabaci, as well as subcellular marker proteins specific for the cell plasma membrane and for intracellular lysosomes. All recombinant proteins were produced as chimeras with fluorescent protein markers at their carboxyl termini, which allows for the direct detection of the recombinant proteins. The double transfection of cells with plasmids harboring constructs for the genes of interest and a known subcellular marker allows for live cell imaging and improved validation of cellular protein localization.

Nonlytic insect cell expression systems are underutilized for production, cellular trafficking/localization, and recombinant protein functional analysis. Here, we describe methods to generate expression vectors and subsequent transient protein expression in commercially available lepidopteran cell lines. The co-localization of Bemisia tabaci aquaporins with subcellular fluorescent marker proteins is also presented.

Heterologous protein expression systems are used for the production of recombinant proteins, the interpretation of cellular trafficking/localization, and ...

Methods Article

Quantifying Spatiotemporal Parameters of Cellular Exocytosis in Micropatterned Cells