Experimental Methods for Efficient Solar Hydrogen Production in Microgravity Environment

Summary

Efficient solar-hydrogen production has recently been realized on functionalized semiconductor-electrocatalyst systems in a photoelectrochemical half-cell in microgravity environment at the Bremen Drop Tower. Here, we report the experimental procedures for manufacturing the semiconductor-electrocatalyst device, details of the experimental set-up in the drop capsule and the experimental sequence during free fall.

Abstract

Long-term space flights and cis-lunar research platforms require a sustainable and light life-support hardware which can be reliably employed outside the Earth's atmosphere. So-called 'solar fuel' devices, currently developed for terrestrial applications in the quest for realizing a sustainable energy economy on Earth, provide promising alternative systems to existing air-revitalization units employed on the International Space Station (ISS) through photoelectrochemical water-splitting and hydrogen production. One obstacle for water (photo-) electrolysis in reduced gravity environments is the absence of buoyancy and the consequential, hindered gas bubble release from the electrode surface. This causes the formation of gas bubble froth layers in proximity to the electrode surface, leading to an increase in ohmic resistance and cell-efficiency loss due to reduced mass transfer of substrates and products to and from the electrode. Recently, we have demonstrated efficient solar hydrogen production in microgravity environment, using an integrated semiconductor-electrocatalyst system with p-type indium phosphide as the light-absorber and a rhodium electrocatalyst. By nanostructuring the electrocatalyst using shadow nanosphere lithography and thereby creating catalytic 'hot spots' on the photoelectrode surface, we could overcome gas bubble coalescence and mass transfer limitations and demonstrated efficient hydrogen production at high current densities in reduced gravitation. Here, the experimental details are described for the preparations of these nanostructured devices and further on, the procedure for their testing in microgravity environment, realized at the Bremen Drop Tower during 9.3 s of free fall.

Introduction

Our atmosphere on Earth is formed through oxygenic photosynthesis, a 2.3-billion-year-old process converting solar energy into energy-rich hydrocarbons, releasing oxygen as a by-product and using water and CO₂ as substrates. Currently, artificial photosynthetic systems following the concept of the energetic Z-scheme of catalysis and charge transfer in natural photosynthesis are realized in semiconductor-electrocatalyst systems, showing hitherto a solar-to-hydrogen conversion efficiency of 19 %^1,2,3. In these systems, semiconductor materials are employed as light ab....

Protocol

1. Preparation of p-InP photoelectrodes

1. Use single crystal p-InP (orientation (111 A), Zn doping concentration of 5 × 10¹⁷ cm^-3) as the photoabsorber. For the back contact preparation, evaporate 4 nm Au, 80 nm Zn and 150 nm Au on the backside of the wafer and heat it to 400 °C for 60 s.
2. Apply Ag paste to attach the ohmic contact to a thin-plated Cu wire. Thread the wire to a glass tube, encapsulate the sample and seal it to the glass tube using black, chemical resistant epoxy.
3. In order to remove native oxides, etch the 0.5 cm² polished indium face of p-InP for 30 s in 10 mL of bromine/methanol ....

Results

Etching the p-InP surface in Br₂/ methanol for 30 s with consecutive photoelectrochemical conditioning of the sample by cycling polarization in HCl is well established in the literature and discussed (e.g., by Schulte & Lewerenz (2001)^14,15). The etching procedure removes the native oxide remaining on the surface (Figure 2) and electrochemical cycling in HCl causes furthermore a conside.......

Discussion

For the preparation of photoelectrodes, it is important to minimize oxygen exposure between the etching and conditioning procedure and to purge the 0.5 M HCl before usage for about 10 - 15 min with nitrogen. Once the samples are conditioned, they can be stored under nitrogen atmosphere in 15 mL conical tubes for a few hours to allow sample transport and/ or preparation time of the polystyrene particle masks. In order to achieve a homogenous arrangement of PS spheres on the electrode substrate, it is important to form a c.......

Materials

Name	Company	Catalog Number	Comments
12.7 mm XZ Dovetail Translation Stage with Baseplate, M4 Taps (4 x)	Thorlabs	DT12XZ/M
Beam splitters (2 x)	Thorlabs	CM1-BS013	50:50 400-700nm
Beamsplitters (2 x)	Thorlabs	CM1-BS014	50:50 700-1100nm
Ohmic back contact: 4 nm Au, 80 nm Zn, 150 nm Au	Out e.V., Berlin, Germany	https://www.out-ev.de/english/index.html	Company provides custom made ohmic back contacts
Glass tube, ca. 10 cm, inner diameter about 4 mm	E.g., Gaßner Glasstechnik		Custom made
p-InP wafers, orientation 111A, Zn doping concentration: 5 x 10^17 cm^-3	AXT Inc. Geo Semiconductor Ltd. Switzerland		Custom made
Photoelectrochemical cell for terrestrial experiments	E.g., glass/ materials workshop		Custom made
Matrox 4Sight GPm (board computer)	Matrox imaging		Ivy Bridge, 7 x Cable Ace power I/O HRS 6p, open 10m, Power Adapter for Matrox 4sight GPm, Samsung 850 Pro 2,5" 1 TB, Solid State Drive in exchange for the 250Gb hard drive
2-propanol	Sigma Aldrich	I9516-500ML
35mm Kowa LM35HC 1" Sensor F1.4 C-mount (2 x)	Basler AG
Acetone	Sigma Aldrich	650501-1L
Ag/AgCl (3 M KCl) reference electrode	WPI	DRIREF-5
Aluminium breadboard, 450 mm x 450 mm x 12.7mm, M6 Taps (2 x)	Thorlabs	MB4545/M
Beaker, 100 mL	VWR	10754-948
Black epoxy	Electrolube	ER2162
Bromine	Sigma Aldrich	1.01945 EMD Millipore
Colour camera (2 x)	Basler AG	acA2040-25gc
Conductive silver epoxy	MG Chemicals	8331-14G
Copper wire	E.g., Sigma Aldrich	349224-150CM
Ethanol	Sigma Aldrich	459844-500ML
Falcon tubes, 15 mL	VWR	62406-200
Glove bags	Sigma Aldrich	Z530212
Hydrochloric acid (1 M)	Sigma Aldrich	H9892
Magnetic stirrer	VWR	97042-626
Methanol	Sigma Aldrich	34860-100ML-R
Microscope slides	VWR	82003-414
MilliQ water
NIR camera (2 x)	Basler AG	acA1300-60gm
Nitrogen, grade 5N	Airgas	NI UHP300
Ø 1" Stackable Lens Tubes (6 x)	Thorlabs	SM1L03
O2 Plasma Facility
OEM Flange to SM Thread Adapters (4 x)	Thorlabs	SM1F2
Parafilm	VWR	52858-000
Pasteur pipette	VWR	14672-380
Perchloric acid (1 M)	Sigma Aldrich	311421-50ML
Petri dish	VWR	75845-546
Photoelectrochemical cell for microgravity experiments	E.g., glass/ materials workshop
Polystyrene particles, 784 nm, 5 % (w/v)	Microparticles GmbH	0.1-0.99 µm size (50 mg/ml): 10 ml, 15 ml, 50 ml
Potentiostats (2 x)	Biologic	SP-200/300
Pt counter electrode	ALS-Japan	12961
Rhodium (III) chlorid	Sigma Aldrich	520772-1G
Shutter control system (2 x)
Silicon reference photodiode	Thorlabs	FDS1010
Sodium chlorid	Sigma Aldrich	567440-500GM
Stands and rods to fix the cameras	VWR
Sulphuric acid (0.5 M)	Sigma Aldrich	339741-100ML
Telecentric High Resolution Type WD110 series Type MML1-HR110	Basler AG
Toluene	Sigma Aldrich	244511-100ML
Various spare beakers and containers for leftover perchloric acid etc for the drop tower	VWR
W-I lamp with light guides (2 x)	Edmund Optics	Dolan-Jenner MI-150 Fiber Optic Illuminator
CM-12 electron microscope with a twin objective lens, CCD camera (Gatan) system and an energy dispersive spectroscopy of X- rays (EDS) system)	Philips
Dimension Icon AFM, rotated symmetric ScanAsyst-Air tips (silicon nitride), nominal tip radius of 2 nm	Bruker