This research was supported by grants from the LuMind Foundation, Research Down Syndrome, and the Alzheimer&#8217;s Association (AS). CP was partially supported by a faculty development grant from the College of Nursing and Health Professions at Arkansas State University.

NOTE: Experiments were conducted in accordance with the ethical standards approved by the Committee on Animal Research at the Veterans Affairs Palo Alto Health Care System.
1. Golgi-Cox Staining
<ol>
	<li>Brain extraction and staining
	<ol>
		<li>On the 1st day, deeply anesthetize mice with 100 mg/kg ketamine and 10 mg/kg xylazine before euthanizing via exsanguination.</li>
		<li>Carefully remove the calvarium and dissect out the brain.
		<ol>
			<li>First remove the skin on the top of the s...

<ol>
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F., van Hooijdonk, L. W., Fitzsimons, C. P., Vreugdenhil, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+doublecortin+gene+family+and+disorders+of+neuronal+structure.">The doublecortin gene family and disorders of neuronal structure.</a> Cent Nerv Syst Agents Med Chem. 10 (1), 32-46 (2010).</li><li>Guerra, E., Pignatelli, J., Nieto-Est&#233;vez, V., Vicario-Abej&#243;n, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transcriptional+regulation+of+olfactory+bulb+neurogenesis.">Transcriptional regulation of olfactory bulb neurogenesis.</a> Anat Rec. 296 (9), 1364-1382 (2013).</li><li>Imayoshi, I., Shimojo, H., Sakamoto, M., Ohtsuka, T., Kageyama, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genetic+visualization+of+notch+signaling+in+mammalian+neurogenesis.">Genetic visualization of notch signaling in mammalian neurogenesis.</a> Cell Mol Life Sci. 70 (12), 2045-2057 (2013).</li><li>Gage, G. 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Publication fees for this article are sponsored by MBF Bioscience.

Here, two methods were described to quantify the extent of dendritic arborization in mature and newly-born neurons using conventional staining methods in conjunction with RTI and EDFI. The acquisition of high resolution images of neurons provides an extremely useful method for testing the deleterious effects of neurodegenerative disorders and, in turn, provides a means to assess therapeutic strategies that target hippocampal neurons.
While the RTI method was utilized to capture in-depth data p...

Dynamic alterations in the number and structure of synapses are hallmarks of development, aging, and numerous neurodegenerative disorders1-3. The ability of neurons to receive and integrate synaptic information depends upon dendritic morphology and dynamic alterations in synaptic connections. Indeed, a positive correlation exists between dendritic spine and synapse number, which both impact cognitive function4. Thus, it is not surprising that decrements in dendritic spine number have been associated with cognitive dysfunction in a number of neurological disorders5-7, prompting great interest in dendritic spine quantification. Nevertheless, the quantification of spine density remains a time-consuming and tedious task that fails to generate useful information regarding the topography and distribution of synapses across the dendritic tree. Fortunately, staining methods (e.g., Golgi-Cox and doublecortin (DCX)) in conjunction with sophisticated imaging techniques can be utilized to overcome current barriers and produce high-resolution images of dendritic arborization in a reliable and expeditious manner. While Golgi-Cox staining method can be deployed to assess the state of dendritic arborization in all neurons8, DCX can be deployed to label newly-born neurons particularly in the dentate gyrus and subventricular zone9, an important consideration given that neurogenesis occurs in both these regions throughout the lifespan10,11.
Following staining, two imaging methods were deployed to assess dendritic characteristics: i) real-time imaging (RTI) and ii) extended depth of field imaging (EDFI). The RTI technique provides a mean to trace and quantify the length and order of arborization along the individual dendritic segments and branches. Thus it enables one to estimate the total area and volume occupied by each dendritic tree. More specifically, in the RTI method the user continuously identifies the segments and refocuses iteratively as the neuron tracing software collects the x, y, and z coordinates of the dendritic structure and reconstructs the trajectory of the dendritic structure in 3D. Comparatively, the EDFI method provides a rather simple and expedited means for assessing dendritic density in rather thick tissue specimens by generating a composite image, providing information on the entire z-axis. To do so, the user records high definition video files throughout the thickness of the section and then uses software to search the video frames to identify points wherein a pixel is completely in focus. Subsequently, the focused pixels are merged and integrated into a high-resolution, composite 2D image. This composite image contains all pixels that were in-focus regardless of their position in the z axis. Qualitative and quantitative analysis of these 2D images can be used subsequently to determine the density of dendritic branching in each field.
Lastly, we present a panoramic method for generating extremely high-resolution images for the analysis and assessment of dendrites in an entire region of interest. This technique can be deployed to overcome the lack of access to very high-resolution and expensive digital cameras. Using this method, one captures serial images at different locations along the x- and y-axes and then automatically stitches them together using a freeware (e.g., Image Composite Editor). Notably, this method can be used for qualitative and quantitative assessment of dendritic arborization in a rather wide area.

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			<td style="width:263px;">Microsoft</td>
			<td>1.4.4.0</td>
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assessment of dendritic arborization in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampal region in mice

Dendritic arborization has been shown to be a reliable marker for examination of structural and functional integrity of neurons. Indeed, the complexity and extent of dendritic arborization correlates well with the synaptic plasticity in these cells. A reliable method for assessment of dendritic arborization is needed to characterize the deleterious effects of neurological disorders on these structures and to determine the effects of therapeutic interventions. However, quantification of these structures has proven to be a formidable task given their complex and dynamic nature. Fortunately, sophisticated imaging techniques can be paired with conventional staining methods to assess the state of dendritic arborization, providing a more reliable and expeditious means of assessment. Below is an example of how these imaging techniques were paired with staining methods to characterize the dendritic arborization in wild type mice. These complementary imaging methods can be used to qualitatively and quantitatively assess dendritic arborization that span a rather wide area within the hippocampal region.

The extent of arborization arising from extant and newly born dentate granule cells was analyzed in wild type mice using either Golgi-Cox or DCX staining (Figure 1). Dendritic segments of DCX-positive cells were found to be 13-36 microns long. The normal distribution of dendritic length was tested using Kolmogorov-Smirnov test (D = 0.1217, p &#60;0.01, Liliefors p &#60;0.001; Figures 4 and 5).
In the analysis of length of segments per order of...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Assessment of Dendritic Arborization in the Dentate Gyrus of the Hippocampal Region in Mice at JoVE.com

Assessment of Dendritic Arborization in the Dentate Gyrus of the Hippocampal Region in Mice

We describe two methods for visualization and quantification of dendritic arborization in the hippocampus of mouse models: real-time and extended depth of field imaging. While the former method allows sophisticated topographical tracing and quantification of the extent of branching, the latter allows speedy visualization of the dendritic tree.

Dendritic arborization has been shown to be a reliable marker for examination of structural and functional integrity of neurons. Indeed, the complexity ...

assessment-dendritic-arborization-dentate-gyrus-hippocampal-region

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JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

10.2K Görüntüleme.  VA Palo Alto Health Care System. We describe two methods for visualization and quantification of dendritic arborization in the hippocampus of mouse models: real-time and extended depth of field imaging. While the former method allows sophisticated topographical tracing and quantification of the extent of branching, the latter allows speedy visualization of the dendritic tree.