The authors thank Robert Schuster for assistance with data verification.

The high-level workflow for mAbScale is shown in Figure 2. Each step has more sophisticated inner decision branches, loops, and combinatorics. A detailed algorithmic workflow describing the calculation process is presented in Supplementary Figure 1. The application output is saved in a spreadsheet format in the user-selected folder. The output file consists of multiple separate worksheets, which can be categorized as the user input, molecular weight calculations, and references for the average isotopic mass derivations (example output is provided in supplemental tables). The user input worksheets include the protein amino acid sequences and other information entered by the user, averaged elemental masses, and glycan masses, which are used to calculate the elemental composition and different molecular weights. The molecular weight calculation sheets include the chemical composition of various forms, the reduced mass with and without glycosylation and chemical modification, and the intact mass with and without glycosylation and chemical modification. Sheets containing half-antibody masses will be generated automatically if the user enters two different HCs and/or two different LCs in the user input page, since half-antibodies are primary impurities that need to be identified and quantified relative to the desired heterodimer. The source code for mAbScale can be accessed through the following repository:&#160;https://github.com/kkhatri99/mAbScale.
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/65298/65298fig02.jpg" /> 
Figure 2: Overview of the steps involved in the calculation of elemental compositions and masses using the application. Color coding can be used to link to the process flow described in Supplementary Figure 1. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/65298/65298fig02large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
1. Opening the mAbscale application
<ol>
	<li>Open the software application by double-clicking on the icon for the executable file.</li>
</ol>
2. Sequence entry
<ol>
	<li>Enter the heavy-chain and light-chain sequences in the respective text boxes marked with 1 without any spaces.
	<ol>
		<li>For bsAbs, add additional heavy or light chains in the second set of text boxes marked 2. Leave 2 blank for mAbs with identical heavy chains and light chains.</li>
		<li>Check the N-Terminal Cyclization and/or C-Terminal Clipping check boxes, if these heavy chain terminal variants are applicable.</li>
		<li>Add any chemical modifications, including linker and payload for ADC molecules, to the Heavy Chain Chem Mod and/or Light Chain Chem Mod text boxes.
		<ol>
			<li>Specify modifications as elemental compositions, such as CaCl2. The modification will be added to the respective protein subunit or chain. 
			&#8203;NOTE: A chemical composition may also be subtracted from a subunit or chain by prefixing the elemental composition with a - sign. For example, -H2O will subtract a water molecule from the subunit composition and mass.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
3. Specifying the number of disulfide bonds
<ol>
	<li>Specify the number of disulfide bonds in the protein molecules in the text box marked Total Number of Disulfides.</li>
	<li>Enter the number of unreduced HC disulfides into the Unreduced HC Disulfides text box and the number of unreduced LC disulfides into the Unreduced LC Disulfides text box, depending on the extent of reduction (complete vs. partial). 
	NOTE: The reduced mass analysis of mAb subunits involves the reduction/separation of the disulfide-linked heavy and light chains.</li>
	<li>If glycosylation is present on the mAb light chain, check the Light Chain is Glycosylated check box.</li>
</ol>
4. Setting the output folder and running the application
<ol>
	<li>Click on the Browse button to select an output folder for the Output Folder text box.</li>
	<li>Enter the output file name without a file extension (automatically saves as .xlsx) into the Excel File (no ext) text box.</li>
	<li>Click on the Submit button to start the application. The output file can be found in the designated folder. 
	&#8203;NOTE: The elemental masses and the list of glycans can be customized by editing the delimited text files Element_Mass.csv (Supplementary Coding File 1) and Glycan.csv (Supplementary Coding File 2), respectively. These files must be placed in the same folder as the mAbScale.exe (Supplementary Coding File 3) executable file for the application to execute. The application will be closed automatically after one execution. The user will have to start the app again if a second calculation is needed.</li>
</ol>

A Python-Based Tool for Accurate Mass Calculation of Biotherapeutic Entities

<ol>
	<li>Reichert, J. M., Valge-Archer, V. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Development+trends+for+monoclonal+antibody+cancer+therapeutics.">Development trends for monoclonal antibody cancer therapeutics.</a> Nature Reviews Drug Discovery. 6 (5), 349-356 (2007).</li><li>Kintzing, J. R., Filsinger Interrante, M. V., Cochran, J. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Emerging+strategies+for+developing+next-generation+protein+therapeutics+for+cancer+treatment.">Emerging strategies for developing next-generation protein therapeutics for cancer treatment.</a> Trends in Pharmacological Sciences. 37 (12), 993-1008 (2016).</li><li>Wang, M. -. Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=SARS-CoV-2:+Structure,+biology,+and+structure-based+therapeutics+development.">SARS-CoV-2: Structure, biology, and structure-based therapeutics development.</a> Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology. 10, 587269 (2020).</li><li>ICH Q8 (R2) Pharmaceutical Development - Scientific Guideline. European Medicines Agency Available from: <a target="_blank" href="https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/ch-q8-r2-pharmaceutical-development-scientific-guideline">https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/ch-q8-r2-pharmaceutical-development-scientific-guideline</a> (2018)</li><li>Donnelly, D. P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Best+practices+and+benchmarks+for+intact+protein+analysis+for+top-down+mass+spectrometry.">Best practices and benchmarks for intact protein analysis for top-down mass spectrometry.</a> Nature Methods. 16 (7), 587-594 (2019).</li><li>Gadgil, H. S., Pipes, G. D., Dillon, T. M., Treuheit, M. J., Bondarenko, P. V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Improving+mass+accuracy+of+high+performance+liquid+chromatography/electrospray+ionization+time-of-flight+mass+spectrometry+of+intact+antibodies.">Improving mass accuracy of high performance liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry of intact antibodies.</a> Journal of the American Society for Mass Spectrometry. 17 (6), 867-872 (2006).</li><li>Beck, A., Sanglier-Cianf&#233;rani, S., Van Dorsselaer, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Biosimilar,+biobetter,+and+next+generation+antibody+characterization+by+mass+spectrometry.">Biosimilar, biobetter, and next generation antibody characterization by mass spectrometry.</a> Analytical Chemistry. 84 (11), 4637-4646 (2012).</li><li>Camperi, J., Goyon, A., Guillarme, D., Zhang, K., Stella, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multi-dimensional+LC-MS:+the+next+generation+characterization+of+antibody-based+therapeutics+by+unified+online+bottom-up,+middle-up+and+intact+approaches.">Multi-dimensional LC-MS: the next generation characterization of antibody-based therapeutics by unified online bottom-up, middle-up and intact approaches.</a> Analyst. 146 (3), 747-769 (2021).</li><li>Liu, H., May, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Disulfide+bond+structures+of+IgG+molecules.">Disulfide bond structures of IgG molecules.</a> mAbs. 4 (1), 17-23 (2012).</li><li>Jakes, C., F&#252;ssl, F., Zaborowska, I., Bones, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rapid+analysis+of+biotherapeutics+using+protein+a+chromatography+coupled+to+orbitrap+mass+spectrometry.">Rapid analysis of biotherapeutics using protein a chromatography coupled to orbitrap mass spectrometry.</a> Analytical Chemistry. 93 (40), 13505-13512 (2021).</li><li>Robotham, A. C., Kelly, J. F., Matte, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chapter+1+-+LC-MS+characterization+of+antibody-based+therapeutics:+Recent+highlights+and+future+prospects.">Chapter 1 - LC-MS characterization of antibody-based therapeutics: Recent highlights and future prospects.</a> Approaches to the Purification, Analysis and Characterization of Antibody-Based Therapeutics. , 1-33 (2020).</li><li>Valeja, S. G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Unit+mass+baseline+resolution+for+an+intact+148+kDa+therapeutic+monoclonal+antibody+by+fourier+transform+ion+cyclotron+resonance+mass+spectrometry.">Unit mass baseline resolution for an intact 148 kDa therapeutic monoclonal antibody by fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry.</a> Analytical Chemistry. 83 (22), 8391-8395 (2011).</li><li>Fornelli, L., Ayoub, D., Aizikov, K., Beck, A., Tsybin, Y. O. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Middle-down+analysis+of+monoclonal+antibodies+with+electron+transfer+dissociation+orbitrap+fourier+transform+mass+spectrometry.">Middle-down analysis of monoclonal antibodies with electron transfer dissociation orbitrap fourier transform mass spectrometry.</a> Analytical Chemistry. 86 (6), 3005-3012 (2014).</li><li>Berglund, M., Wieser, M. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Isotopic+compositions+of+the+elements+2009+(IUPAC+Technical+Report).">Isotopic compositions of the elements 2009 (IUPAC Technical Report).</a> Pure and Applied Chemistry. 83 (2), 397-410 (2011).</li><li>Wang, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Ame2012+atomic+mass+evaluation.">The Ame2012 atomic mass evaluation.</a> Chinese Physics C. 36 (12), 1603-2014 (2012).</li><li>Peri, S., Steen, H., Pandey, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=GPMAW--A+software+tool+for+analyzing+proteins+and+peptides.">GPMAW--A software tool for analyzing proteins and peptides.</a> Trends in Biochemical Sciences. 26 (11), 687-689 (2001).</li><li>Tipton, J. D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Analysis+of+intact+protein+isoforms+by+mass+spectrometry.">Analysis of intact protein isoforms by mass spectrometry.</a> The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 286 (29), 25451-25458 (2011).</li><li>De Leoz, M. L. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=interlaboratory+study+on+glycosylation+analysis+of+monoclonal+antibodies:+Comparison+of+results+from+diverse+analytical+methods.">interlaboratory study on glycosylation analysis of monoclonal antibodies: Comparison of results from diverse analytical methods.</a> Molecular &amp; Cellular Proteomics. 19 (1), 11-30 (2020).</li><li>Cymer, F., Beck, H., Rohde, A., Reusch, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Therapeutic+monoclonal+antibody+N-glycosylation+-+Structure,+function+and+therapeutic+potential.">Therapeutic monoclonal antibody N-glycosylation - Structure, function and therapeutic potential.</a> Biologicals. 52, 1-11 (2018).</li><li>Baker, P. R., Trinidad, J. C., Chalkley, R. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Modification+site+localization+scoring+integrated+into+a+search+engine.">Modification site localization scoring integrated into a search engine.</a> Molecular &amp; Cellular Proteomics. 10 (7), (2011).</li><li>Chalkley, R. J., Clauser, K. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Modification+site+localization+scoring:+Strategies+and+performance.">Modification site localization scoring: Strategies and performance.</a> Molecular &amp; Cellular Proteomics. 11 (5), 3-14 (2012).</li></ol>

This software is being released under the Apache 2.0 license. Copyright (2022) of GlaxoSmithKline Research &#38; Development Limited. All rights reserved. Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the &#34;License&#34;); you may not use this file except in compliance with the License. You may obtain a copy of the License at http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0. Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software distributed under the License is distributed on an &#34;as is&#34; basis, without warranties or conditions of any kind, either expressed or implied. See the License for the specific language governing permissions and limitations under the License. L.C. is a GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) employee. T.H. and K.K. developed this software as employees of GSK and are now associates of Merck and Moderna, respectively.

mAbScale provides an intuitive user interface with the flexibility to alter the building blocks for mass and elemental calculations. The users are expected to have a basic understanding of the target molecule to use the application, derive correct masses, and interpret the results. For example, the intact or reduced mass output sheet can be overwhelming due to the numerous rows of intact or reduced masses, since the default glycan database contains 88 N-linked glycans that are commonly found in the Fc portion of therapeu...

Over the past two decades, biotherapeutics have evolved to become a mainstay of the modern pharmaceutical industry. The SARS-CoV2 pandemic and other life-threatening conditions have further increased the need for the faster and broader development of biopharmaceutical molecules1,2,3.
The biotherapeutic molecular weight is critical for the identification of the molecule, in combination with other analytical assays. The intact and reduced subunit masses are used throughout the discovery and development lifecycles as part of control strategies aimed at maintaining the quality, as described in the QTPP (Quality Target Product Profile)4.
Analytical development in the biopharmaceutical industry relies heavily on mass measurements for intact mass analysis and deep characterization using peptide mapping or multi-attribute method (MAM) monitoring. At the center of these techniques utilizing modern mass spectrometry (MS) platforms is the ability to provide high-resolution accurate mass (HR/AM) measurements. Most HR/AM instruments yield mass accuracies in the range of 0.5-5 ppm, which scale with the mass range. The ability to measure masses accurately for intact large molecules enables the quick and confident identification of large-molecule therapeutics. As isotopic resolution cannot be attained using typical experimental conditions for large molecules (&#62;10 kDa), average masses must be calculated for comparison and identification5,6.
A typical intact or subunit protein mass spectrum represents the overall proteoform profile, which contains composite information on the various molecular forms resulting from post-translational modifications (PTM) and any primary structure differences, such as clips or sequence variants. The relatively easy and high-throughput nature of these measurements make them attractive for characterization and as in-process monitoring controls7,8. Data analysis for these experiments usually requires the user to define the search space for molecular forms (range of PTMs or other molecular forms). For glycosylated proteins, this search space is largely driven by glycoform heterogeneity. Combinations of multiple PTMs, disulfide bond configurations, and other variations along the primary structure make calculating all the possible molecular forms a tedious task. Therefore, the manual calculation of the possible molecular forms is a time and resource-consuming process with a high potential for human error.
Here, we present a mass calculation tool that was developed considering the most important features of biotherapeutic molecules, such as mAbs, bsAbs, ADCs, etc. The tool allows the easy incorporation of search-space variables for the consistent calculation of masses and elemental compositions. The modular nature of this tool will enable it to be further developed and applied to mass calculation and mass matching for other modalities.
The GUI module allows the user to specify the input for the mass calculation, as shown in Figure 1; specifically, the user enters single-letter amino acid sequences for light and heavy antibody chains. Common modifications for heavy-chain N-terminal cyclization and C-terminal lysine clipping are included as check boxes. Further, the chemical formula/elemental composition can be added/subtracted from these protein chains through the respective Chem Mod text box. This allows the user the flexibility to add an elemental composition that includes multiple post-translational modifications or a small-molecule payload in the case of an ADC. As most therapeutic mAbs are engineered to remove the glycosylation sites in the light chain, glycosylation in the light chain is left optional and can be specified using a check box on the GUI.
A typical variation on intact mass analysis for antibodies is a reduced subunit mass analysis, where the light chain is detached from the heavy chain by reducing the interchain disulfide bonds. Depending on the strength of the reducing agent used, the intrachain disulfide bonds may or may not be cleaved. The users have the flexibility of entering the total number of disulfide bonds depending on the IgG subtype or in case of a cysteine-conjugated ADC9.
The application calculates masses in a bottom-up manner, in which the elemental compositions are first calculated for the individual heavy chains and light chains. Next, heavy chain (HC) N-terminal cyclization Lys-clipping is accounted for by adjusting the calculated elemental compositions. Any specified chemical modifications are then applied to the heavy and/or light chains. Depending on the type of analysis and the disulfide-bond patterns specified by the user, the number of hydrogens is adjusted for the two polypeptide chains. The glycosylated HC and light chain (LC) (optional) masses are calculated based on the user&#39;s input. Finally, multiple HC and LC masses are combined, and the disulfide bond numbers are automatically updated for the intact mass calculation.
With larger molecules such as intact proteins, monoisotopic masses cannot be measured due to the additive mass defect when using mass spectrometers with typical resolving power. Instead, nominal or average masses are measured or reported5,10,11,12,13. The average elemental masses can vary based on the source used for the curated masses14,15. While the differences in elemental masses may be small, they can add up to significant values for large-molecule molecular weight calculations. The average elemental masses used by default in the software application are shown in Supplementary Table 1. For regulated environments like the biopharmaceutical research and development (R&#38;D) field, it is important to maintain consistent molecular masses because changes in masses may imply changes to the molecular entity during regulatory filings. To enable consistency in the use of elemental masses, a dictionary of elemental masses is included with the software tool as a comma-separated value (csv) text file: Element_Mass.csv (Supplementary Coding File 1). Similarly, a curated list of glycan compositions typically seen on mAbs is included: Glycan.csv (Supplementary Coding File 2). Both files are saved in the same folder location as an executable application and can be modified by the user to use a specific elemental mass list or glycan library.
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/65298/65298fig01.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: GUI interface for the mAbScale application. The GUI module allows the user to specify the input for the mass calculation. The user enters single-letter amino acid sequences for the light and heavy antibody chains. Common modifications for the heavy-chain N-terminal cyclization and C-terminal lysine clipping are included as check boxes. Chemical formulas/elemental compositions can be added/subtracted through the respective Chem Mod text box. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/65298/65298fig01large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

<table><tbody><tr><td>Acquity UPLC system&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Waters Corp., Milford, MA</td><td>N/A</td><td>Modular system</td></tr><tr><td>Antibody-drug conjugate (ADC)</td><td>GlaxoSmithKline</td><td>N/A</td><td>Proprietory molecule</td></tr><tr><td>BEH 200 SEC column&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Waters Corp., Milford, MA</td><td>176003904</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Bispecific mAb</td><td>GlaxoSmithKline</td><td>N/A</td><td>Proprietory molecule</td></tr><tr><td>Byos</td><td>Protein Metrics, Cupertino, CA</td><td>https://proteinmetrics.com/byos/&lt;br/&gt; Version 4.5</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>GPMAW</td><td>GPMAW</td><td>http://www.gpmaw.com/</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>LC-MS grade water&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA</td><td>W6-1</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>mAb standard&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Waters Corp., Milford, MA</td><td>186009125</td><td>Waters Humanized mAb Mass Check Standard</td></tr><tr><td>mAbScale</td><td>GlaxoSmithKline</td><td>Apache License, Version 2.0&amp;nbsp;</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Xevo G2 Q-TOF mass spectrometer</td><td>Waters Corp., Milford, MA</td><td>N/A</td><td>Modular system</td></tr></tbody></table>

an open-source framework for mass calculation of antibody-based therapeutic molecules

Biotherapeutic masses are a means of verifying identity and structural integrity. Mass spectrometry (MS) of intact proteins or protein subunits provides an easy analytical tool for different stages of biopharmaceutical development. The protein's identity is confirmed when the experimental mass from MS is within a pre-defined mass error range of the theoretical mass. While several computational tools exist for the calculation of protein and peptide molecular weights, they either were not designed for direct application to biotherapeutic entities, have access limitations due to paid licenses, or require uploading protein sequences to host servers. 
We have developed a modular mass calculation routine that enables the easy determination of the average or monoisotopic masses and elemental compositions of therapeutic glycoproteins, including monoclonal antibodies (mAb), bispecific antibodies (bsAb), and antibody-drug conjugates (ADC). The modular nature of this Python-based calculation framework will allow the extension of this platform to other modalities such as vaccines, fusion proteins, and oligonucleotides in the future, and this framework could also be useful for the interrogation of top-down mass spectrometry data. By creating an open-source standalone desktop application with a graphical user interface (GUI), we hope to overcome the restrictions around use in environments where proprietary information cannot be uploaded to web-based tools. This article describes the algorithms and application of this tool, mAbScale, to different antibody-based therapeutic modalities.

A variety of mAbs were selected to represent different types of mAbs. A commercially available mAb standard was selected to represent a conventional mAb with identical heavy chains, identical light chains, and one N-linked glycosylation site in the Fc region. A&#160;mAb with an additional light chain N-linked glycosylation, a bispecific mAb, and an antibody-drug conjugate (ADC) mAb were also chosen to widen the application usage. The chemical composition, calculated mass, measured mass, and mass error of these example mA...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Advancing Biotherapeutic Mass Calculation by Introducing mAbScale, a Python-Based Desktop Application at JoVE.com

Author Spotlight: Advancing Biotherapeutic Mass Calculation by Introducing mAbScale, a Python-Based Desktop Application

This article describes the use of a software application, mAbScale, for the calculation of masses for monoclonal antibody-based protein therapeutics.

An Open-Source Framework for Mass Calculation of Antibody-Based Therapeutic Molecules

Biotherapeutic masses are a means of verifying identity and structural integrity. Mass spectrometry (MS) of intact proteins or protein subunits provides ...

an-open-source-framework-for-mass-calculation-antibody-based

Research

JoVE Journal

Biochemistry

1.4K Views.  GlaxoSmithKline. This article describes the use of a software application, mAbScale, for the calculation of masses for monoclonal antibody-based protein therapeutics.

Video: Author Spotlight: Advancing Biotherapeutic Mass Calculation by Introducing mAbScale, a Python-Based Desktop Application

Laboratory Scale Production and Purification of a Therapeutic Antibody

Ensuring the successful production of a therapeutic antibody begins early on in the development process. The first stage is vector expression of the antibody genes followed by stable transfection into a suitable cell line. The stable clones are subjected to screening in order to select those clones with desired production and growth characteristics. This is a critical albeit time-consuming step in the process. This protocol considers vector selection and sourcing of antibody sequences for the expression of a therapeutic antibody. The methods describe preparation of vector DNA for stable transfection of a suspension variant of human embryonic kidney 293 (HEK-293) cell line, using polyethylenimine (PEI). The cells are transfected as adherent cells in serum-containing media to maximize transfection efficiency, and afterwards adapted to serum-free conditions. Large scale production, setup as batch overgrow cultures is used to yield antibody protein that is purified by affinity chromatography using an automated fast protein liquid chromatography (FPLC) instrument. The antibody yields produced by this method can provide sufficient protein to begin initial characterization of the antibody. This may include in vitro assay development or physicochemical characterization to aid in the time-consuming task of clonal screening for lead candidates. This method can be transferable to the development of an expression system for the production of biosimilar antibodies.

This protocol describes the production of a therapeutic antibody in a mammalian expression system. The methods described include preparation of vector DNA, stable transfection and serum-free adaptation of a human embryonic kidney 293 cell line, set up of large scale cultures and purification using affinity chromatography.

Ensuring the successful production of a therapeutic antibody begins early on in the development process. The first stage is vector expression of the ...

Characterization of Glycoproteins with the Immunoglobulin Fold by X-Ray Crystallography and Biophysical Techniques

Glycoproteins on the surface of cells play critical roles in cellular function, including signalling, adhesion and transport. On leukocytes, several of these glycoproteins possess immunoglobulin (Ig) folds and are central to immune recognition and regulation. Here, we present a platform for the design, expression and biophysical characterization of the extracellular domain of human B cell receptor CD22. We propose that these approaches are broadly applicable to the characterization of mammalian glycoprotein ectodomains containing Ig domains. Two suspension human embryonic kidney (HEK) cell lines, HEK293F and HEK293S, are used to express glycoproteins harbouring complex and high-mannose glycans, respectively. These recombinant glycoproteins with different glycoforms allow investigating the effect of glycan size and composition on ligand binding. We discuss protocols for studying the kinetics and thermodynamics of glycoprotein binding to biologically relevant ligands and therapeutic antibody candidates. Recombinant glycoproteins produced in HEK293S cells are amenable to crystallization due to glycan homogeneity, reduced flexibility and susceptibility to endoglycosidase H treatment. We present methods for soaking glycoprotein crystals with heavy atoms and small molecules for phase determination and analysis of ligand binding, respectively. The experimental protocols discussed here hold promise for the characterization of mammalian glycoproteins to give insight into their function and investigate the mechanism of action of therapeutics.

We present approaches for the biophysical and structural characterization of glycoproteins with the immunoglobulin fold by biolayer interferometry, isothermal titration calorimetry, and X-ray crystallography.

Glycoproteins on the surface of cells play critical roles in cellular function, including signalling, adhesion and transport. On leukocytes, several of ...

Genetic Encoding of a Non-Canonical Amino Acid for the Generation of Antibody-Drug Conjugates Through a Fast Bioorthogonal Reaction

Antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs) used nowadays in clinical practice are mixtures of antibody molecules linked to a varying number of toxins at different positions. Preclinical studies have shown that the therapeutic index of these traditional ADCs can be improved by the site-specific linkage of toxins. However, current approaches to produce homogeneous ADCs have several limitations, such as low protein expression and slow reaction kinetics. In this protocol we describe how to set up an expression system to incorporate a cyclopropene derivative of lysine (CypK) into antibodies using genetic code expansion. This minimal bioorthogonal handle allows rapid conjugation of tetrazine derivatives through an inverse-demand Diels-Alder cycloaddition. The expression system here reported enables the facile production and purification of trastuzumab bearing CypK in each of the heavy chains. We explain how to link the antibody to the toxin monomethyl auristatin E and characterize the immunoconjugate by hydrophobic interaction chromatography and mass spectrometry. Finally, we describe assays to assess the stability in human serum of the dihydropyridazine linkage resulting from the conjugation and to test the selective cytotoxicity of the ADC for breast cancer cells with high levels of HER2 receptor.

Incorporating a cyclopropene derivative of lysine into antibodies allows the site-specific, rapid and efficient linkage of tetrazine-bearing molecules to generate antibody-drug conjugates.

Antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs) used nowadays in clinical practice are mixtures of antibody molecules linked to a varying number of toxins at different ...

Chemistry

Scalable High Throughput Selection From  Phage-displayed Synthetic Antibody Libraries

The demand for antibodies that fulfill the needs of both basic and clinical research applications is high and will dramatically increase in the future. However, it is apparent that traditional monoclonal technologies are not alone up to this task. This has led to the development of alternate methods to satisfy the demand for high quality and renewable affinity reagents to all accessible elements of the proteome. Toward this end, high throughput methods for conducting selections from phage-displayed synthetic antibody libraries have been devised for applications involving diverse antigens and optimized for rapid throughput and success. Herein, a protocol is described in detail that illustrates with video demonstration the parallel selection of Fab-phage clones from high diversity libraries against hundreds of targets using either a manual 96 channel liquid handler or automated robotics system. Using this protocol, a single user can generate hundreds of antigens, select antibodies to them in parallel and validate antibody binding within 6-8 weeks. Highlighted are: i) a viable antigen format, ii) pre-selection antigen characterization, iii) critical steps that influence the selection of specific and high affinity clones, and iv) ways of monitoring selection effectiveness and early stage antibody clone characterization. With this approach, we have obtained synthetic antibody fragments (Fabs) to many target classes including single-pass membrane receptors, secreted protein hormones, and multi-domain intracellular proteins. These fragments are readily converted to full-length antibodies and have been validated to exhibit high affinity and specificity. Further, they have been demonstrated to be functional in a variety of standard immunoassays including Western blotting, ELISA, cellular immunofluorescence, immunoprecipitation and related assays. This methodology will accelerate antibody discovery and ultimately bring us closer to realizing the goal of generating renewable, high quality antibodies to the proteome.

A method is described with visual accompaniment for conducting scalable, high throughput selections from phage-displayed combinatorial synthetic antibody libraries against hundreds of antigens simultaneously. Using this parallel approach, we have isolated antibody fragments that exhibit high affinity and specificity for diverse antigens that are functional in standard immunoassays.

The demand for antibodies that fulfill the needs of both basic and clinical research applications is high and will dramatically increase in the future. ...

Immunology and Infection

Rapid Determination of Antibody-Antigen Affinity by Mass Photometry

Measurements of the specificity and affinity of antigen-antibody interactions are critically important for medical and research applications. In this protocol, we describe the implementation of a new single-molecule technique, mass photometry (MP), for this purpose. MP is a label- and immobilization-free technique that detects and quantifies molecular masses and populations of antibodies and antigen-antibody complexes on a single-molecule level. MP analyzes the antigen-antibody sample within minutes, allowing for the precise determination of the binding affinity and simultaneously providing information on the stoichiometry and the oligomeric state of the proteins. This is a simple and straightforward technique that requires only picomole quantities of protein and no expensive consumables. The same procedure can be used to study protein-protein binding for proteins with a molecular mass larger than 50 kDa. For multivalent protein interactions, the affinities of multiple binding sites can be obtained in a single measurement. However, the single-molecule mode of measurement and the lack of labeling imposes some experimental limitations. This method gives the best results when applied to measurements of sub-micromolar interaction affinities, antigens with a molecular mass of 20 kDa or larger, and relatively pure protein samples. We also describe the procedure for performing the required fitting and calculation steps using basic data analysis software.

We describe a single-molecule approach to antigen-antibody affinity measurements using mass photometry (MP). The MP-based protocol is fast, accurate, uses a very small amount of material, and does not require protein modification.

Measurements of the specificity and affinity of antigen-antibody interactions are critically important for medical and research applications. In this ...

Initial Evaluation of Antibody-conjugates Modified with Viral-derived Peptides for Increasing Cellular Accumulation and Improving Tumor Targeting

Antibody-conjugates (ACs) modified with virus-derived peptides are a potentially powerful class of tumor cell delivery agents for molecular payloads used in cancer treatment and imaging due to increased cellular accumulation over current ACs. During early AC in vitro development, fluorescence techniques and radioimmunoassays are sufficient for determining intracellular localization, accumulation efficiency, and target cell specificity. Currently, there is no consensus on standardized methods for preparing cells for evaluating AC intracellular accumulation and localization. The initial testing of ACs modified with virus-derived peptides is critical especially if several candidates have been constructed. Determining intracellular accumulation by fluorescence can be affected by background signal from ACs at the cell surface and complicate the interpretation of accumulation. For radioimmunoassays, typically treated cells are fractionated and the radioactivity in different cell compartments measured. However, cell lysis varies from cell to cell and often nuclear and cytoplasmic compartments are not adequately isolated. This can produce misleading data on payload delivery properties. The intravenous injection of radiolabeled virus-derived peptide-modified ACs in tumor bearing mice followed by radionuclide imaging is a powerful method for determining tumor targeting and payload delivery properties at the in vivo phase of development. However, this is a relatively recent advancement and few groups have evaluated virus-derived peptide-modified ACs in this manner. We describe the processing of treated cells to more accurately evaluate virus-derived peptide-modified AC accumulation when using confocal microscopy and radioimmunoassays. Specifically, a method for trypsinizing cells to remove cell surface bound ACs. We also provide a method for improving cellular fractionation. Lastly, this protocol provides an in vivo method using positron emission tomography (PET) for evaluating initial tumor targeting properties in tumor-bearing mice. We use the radioisotope 64Cu (t1/2 = 12.7 h) as an example payload in this protocol.

Viral-derived peptides coupled to antibody-conjugates (ACs) is an approach gaining momentum due to the potential of delivering molecular payloads with increased tumor cell accumulation. Utilizing common methods to evaluate peptide conjugation, AC and payload intracellular accumulation, and tumor targeting, this protocol helps researchers during the key initial development phases.

Antibody-conjugates (ACs) modified with virus-derived peptides are a potentially powerful class of tumor cell delivery agents for molecular payloads used ...

Bioengineering

Detection of Antibodies That Neutralize the Cellular Uptake of Enzyme Replacement Therapies with a Cell-based Assay

The administration of enzyme replacement therapies (ERTs) and other biologic therapies to patients may elicit an anti-drug immune response. The characterization of these anti-drug antibodies (ADA), especially those that may neutralize the biological activity of the drug, termed neutralizing antibodies (NAbs), is crucial in understanding the effects of these antibodies on the drug&#39;s pharmacological profile. This protocol describes a cell-based flow cytometry method to detect factors that neutralize the cellular uptake of a representative lysosomal ERT in human matrix. The protocol consists of three procedures: screening, a confirmatory step, and titer assays to detect, identify, and establish the relative level of neutralizing antibody titer in subject samples.
In this method, samples are first mixed with the fluorophore-conjugated ERT product, then incubated with cells [e.g., human T lymphocytes (Jurkat cells)] that express a cell-surface cation-independent mannose 6-phosphate receptor (CI-M6PR), and finally, analyzed with a flow cytometer. A sample without NAbs will result in the uptake of the fluorophore-conjugated ERT product via CI-M6PR, whereas, the presence of NAbs will bind to the drug and interfere with the CI-M6PR binding and uptake. The amount of the fluorophore-conjugated ERT internalized by the Jurkat cells is measured by flow cytometry and evaluated as the percentage (%) signal inhibition compared to the response obtained in the presence of a representative drug-na&#239;ve matrix. In the confirmatory step, the samples are pre-incubated with ERT-conjugated magnetic beads to deplete drug-specific factors that bind to the drug (such as NAbs) prior to an incubation with cells. Samples that screen and confirm positive for drug-specific NAbs in the assay are then serially diluted to generate an antibody titer. Semi-quantitative antibody titers may be correlated with measurements of drug safety and efficacy.

Here we present a cell-based flow cytometry method to detect neutralizing antibodies or other factors that interfere with the cellular uptake of enzyme replacement therapies in a human matrix, such as cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) or human serum.

The administration of enzyme replacement therapies (ERTs) and other biologic therapies to patients may elicit an anti-drug immune response. The ...

Identification of Mouse and Human Antibody Repertoires by Next-Generation Sequencing

The immense adaptability of antigen recognition by antibodies is the basis of the acquired immune system. Despite our understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying the production of the vast repertoire of antibodies by the acquired immune systems, it has not yet been possible to arrive at a global view of a complete antibody repertoire. In particular, B cell repertoires have been regarded as a black box because of their astronomical number of antibody clones. However, next-generation sequencing technologies are enabling breakthroughs to increase our understanding of the B cell repertoire. In this report, we describe a simple and efficient method to visualize and analyze whole individual mouse and human antibody repertoires. From the immune organs, representatively from spleen in mice and peripheral blood mononuclear cells in humans, total RNA was prepared, reverse transcribed, and amplified using the 5&#39;-RACE method. Using a universal forward primer and antisense primers for the antibody class-specific constant domains, antibody mRNAs were uniformly amplified in proportions reflecting their frequencies in the antibody populations. The amplicons were sequenced by next-generation sequencing (NGS), yielding more than 105 antibody sequences per immunological sample. We describe the protocols for antibody sequence analyses including V(D)J-gene-segment annotation, a bird&#39;s-eye view of the antibody repertoire, and our computational methods.

Here, we describe protocols for the analysis and visualization of the structure and constitution of whole antibody repertoires. This involves the acquisition of vast sequences of antibody RNA using next-generation sequencing.

The immense adaptability of antigen recognition by antibodies is the basis of the acquired immune system. Despite our understanding of the molecular ...

A High Throughput MHC II Binding Assay for Quantitative Analysis of Peptide Epitopes

Biochemical assays with recombinant human MHC II molecules can provide rapid, quantitative insights into immunogenic epitope identification, deletion, or design1,2. Here, a peptide-MHC II binding assay is scaled to 384-well format. The scaled down protocol reduces reagent costs by 75% and is higher throughput than previously described 96-well protocols1,3-5. Specifically, the experimental design permits robust and reproducible analysis of up to 15 peptides against one MHC II allele per 384-well ELISA plate. Using a single liquid handling robot, this method allows one researcher to analyze approximately ninety test peptides in triplicate over a range of eight concentrations and four MHC II allele types in less than 48 hr. Others working in the fields of protein deimmunization or vaccine design and development may find the protocol to be useful in facilitating their own work. In particular, the step-by-step instructions and the visual format of JoVE should allow other users to quickly and easily establish this methodology in their own labs.

Biochemical assays with recombinant human MHC II molecules can provide rapid, quantitative insights into immunogenic epitope identification, deletion, or design. &#160;Here, a peptide-MHC II binding assay scaled to 384-well plates is described. This cost effective format should prove useful in the fields of protein deimmunization and vaccine design and development.

Biochemical assays with recombinant human MHC II molecules can provide rapid, quantitative insights into immunogenic epitope identification, deletion, or ...

Biology

Synthetic Antigen Controls for Immunohistochemistry

Immunohistochemistry (IHC) assays provide valuable insights into protein expression patterns, the reliable interpretation of which requires well-characterized positive and negative control samples. Because appropriate tissue or cell line controls are not always available, a simple method to create synthetic IHC controls may be beneficial. Such a method is described here. It is adaptable to various antigen types, including proteins, peptides, or oligonucleotides, in a wide range of concentrations. This protocol explains the steps necessary to create synthetic antigen controls, using as an example a peptide from the human erythroblastic oncogene B2 (ERBB2/HER2) intracellular domain (ICD) recognized by a variety of diagnostically relevant antibodies. Serial dilutions of the HER2 ICD peptide in bovine serum albumin (BSA) solution are mixed with formaldehyde and heated for 10 min at 85 &#176;C to solidify and cross-link the peptide/BSA mixture. The resulting gel can be processed, sectioned, and stained like a tissue, yielding a series of samples of known antigen concentrations spanning a wide range of staining intensities.
This simple protocol is consistent with routine histology lab procedures. The method requires only that the user have a sufficient quantity of the desired antigen. Recombinant proteins, protein domains, or linear peptides that encode relevant epitopes may be synthesized locally or commercially. Laboratories generating in-house antibodies can reserve aliquots of the immunizing antigen as the synthetic control target. The opportunity to create well-defined positive controls across a wide range of concentrations allows users to assess intra- and inter-laboratory assay performance, gain insight into the dynamic range and linearity of their assays, and optimize assay conditions for their particular experimental goals.

This work documents a simple method to create synthetic antigen controls for immunohistochemistry. The technique is adaptable to a variety of antigens in a wide range of concentrations. The samples provide a reference with which to assess intra- and inter-assay performance and reproducibility.