We thank Ye Wang for discussions and Sorin Pojoga for behavioral training. Supported by the NIH EUREKA Program, the National Eye Institute, the Pew Scholars Program, the James S. McDonnell Foundation (V.D.), and an NIH Vision Training Grant (B.J.H.).

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No conflicts of interest declared.

Multi-unit recordings have become standard for analyzing how neural networks in the cortex encode stimulus information. Given the recent advancements in electrode technology, the implementation of laminar electrodes enables an unprecedented characterization of local cortical circuits. Although multi-electrode recordings offer useful information about neural population dynamics, multiple laminar electrodes enable greater resolution and more information about the specific location of neurons. Since the cortex is organize...

<table border="1">
 <tbody>
 <tr>
 <td>Name of Equipment</td>
 <td>Company</td>
 <td>Catalogue number</td>
 <td>Comments</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Nan microdrive system</td>
 <td>Nan Instruments</td>
 <td>NAN-S4 </td>
 <td>Figure 2. Custom clamps are needed to use the U-Probe. Everything mentioned with exception of the U-Probe is provided by NAN instruments. </td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Screw microdrives</td>
 <td>MIT Machine shop</td>
 <td>&nbsp;</td>
 <td>Anything that is able to secure a guide tube to the NAN grid should be appropriate.</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Stainless Steel Guide Tubes</td>
 <td>Small Parts</td>
 <td>B00137QHNS (1) or B00137QHO2 (5)</td>
 <td>These are 60 in long and cut to size in the laboratory using a Dremel hand drill</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Plexon U-Probe</td>
 <td>Plexon, Inc</td>
 <td>PLX-UP-16-25ED-100-SE-360-25T-500</td>
 <td>See U-Probe specifications available at <a href="www.plexon.com">www.plexon.com</a> Also see Figure 1.</td>
 </tr>
 </tbody>
</table>
Table 1. Hardware.
<table border="1">
 <tbody>
 <tr>
 <td>Name of Software</td>
 <td>Company</td>
 <td>Website</td>
 <td>Comments</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>NAN software</td>
 <td>NAN</td>
 <td><a href="http://www.naninstruments.com/DesignConcept.htm">http://www.naninstruments.com/DesignConcept.htm</a></td>
 <td>Computer interface requires an additional serial port to accommodate the Plexon system and the NAN hardware</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Offline Sorter, FPAlign, PlexUtil, MATLAB programs</td>
 <td>Plexon</td>
 <td><a href="http://www.plexon.com/downloads.html#Software">http://www.plexon.com/downloads.html#Software</a></td>
 <td>Under 'Installation Packages'</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>NeuroExplorer</td>
 <td>NeuroExplorer</td>
 <td><a href="http://www.neuroexplorer.com/">http://www.neuroexplorer.com/</a></td>
 <td>Under 'Resources'</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>CSDplotter Version 0.1.1</td>
 <td>Klas H. Petterson</td>
 <td><a href="http://arken.umb.no/~klaspe/user_guide.pdf">http://arken.umb.no/~klaspe/user_guide.pdf</a></td>
 <td>&nbsp;</td>
 </tr>
 </tbody>
</table>
Table 2. Software.

examining local network processing using multi-contact laminar electrode recording

Cortical layers are ubiquitous structures throughout neocortex1-4 that consist of highly recurrent local networks. In recent years, significant progress has been made in our understanding of differences in response properties of neurons in different cortical layers5-8, yet there is still a great deal left to learn about whether and how neuronal populations encode information in a laminar-specific manner.
Existing multi-electrode array techniques, although informative for measuring responses across many millimeters of cortical space along the cortical surface, are unsuitable to approach the issue of laminar cortical circuits. Here, we present our method for setting up and recording individual neurons and local field potentials (LFPs) across cortical layers of primary visual cortex (V1) utilizing multi-contact laminar electrodes (Figure 1; Plextrode U-Probe, Plexon Inc).
The methods included are recording device construction, identification of cortical layers, and identification of receptive fields of individual neurons. To identify cortical layers, we measure the evoked response potentials (ERPs) of the LFP time-series using full-field flashed stimuli. We then perform current-source density (CSD) analysis to identify the polarity inversion accompanied by the sink-source configuration at the base of layer 4 (the sink is inside layer 4, subsequently referred to as granular layer9-12). Current-source density is useful because it provides an index of the location, direction, and density of transmembrane current flow, allowing us to accurately position electrodes to record from all layers in a single penetration6, 11, 12.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Examining Local Network Processing using Multi-contact Laminar Electrode Recording at JoVE.com

Examining Local Network Processing using Multi-contact Laminar Electrode Recording

A fundamental issue in our understanding of cortical circuitry is how networks in different cortical layers encode sensory information. Here we describe electrophysiological techniques utilizing multi-contact laminar electrodes to record single-units and local field potentials and present analyses to identify cortical layers.

Cortical layers are ubiquitous structures throughout neocortex1-4 that consist of highly recurrent local networks. In recent years, significant progress ...

examining-local-network-processing-using-multi-contact-laminar

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12.7K Views.  University of Texas. A fundamental issue in our understanding of cortical circuitry is how networks in different cortical layers encode sensory information. Here we describe electrophysiological techniques utilizing multi-contact laminar electrodes to record single-units and local field potentials and present analyses to identify cortical layers.

Video: Examining Local Network Processing using Multi-contact Laminar Electrode Recording

Electrophysiology on Isolated Brainstem-spinal Cord Preparations from Newborn Rodents Allows Neural Respiratory Network Output Recording

While it is well known that the central respiratory drive is located in the brainstem, several aspects of its basic function, development, and response to stimuli remain to be fully understood. To overcome the difficulty of accessing the brainstem in the whole animal, isolation of the brainstem and part of the spinal cord is performed. This preparation is maintained in artificial cerebro-spinal fluid where gases, concentrations, and temperature are controlled and monitored. The output signal from the respiratory network is recorded by a suction electrode placed on the fourth ventral root. In this manner, stimuli can be directly applied onto the brainstem, and the effect can be recorded directly. The signal recorded is linked to the inspiratory signal sent to the diaphragm via the phrenic nerve, and can be described as bursts (around 8 bursts per minute). Analysis of these bursts (frequency, amplitude, length, and area under the curve) allows precise characterization of the stimulus effect on the respiratory network. The main limitation of this method is the viability of the preparation beyond the early post-natal stages. Thus, this method greatly focuses on the study of the whole network without the peripheral inputs in the newborn rat.

The central respiratory drive is located in the brainstem. Spontaneous respiratory motor output from an isolated brainstem-spinal cord is recorded by placing an electrode on the fourth ventral root. This experimental approach is valuable for pharmacological investigations or the assessment of respiratory challenges and genetic manipulations on rhythmic motor behavior.

While it is well known that the central respiratory drive is located in the brainstem, several aspects of its basic function, development, and response to ...

Time-dependent Increase in the Network Response to the Stimulation of Neuronal Cell Cultures on Micro-electrode Arrays

Micro-electrode arrays (MEAs) can be used to investigate drug toxicity, design paradigms for next-generation personalized medicine, and study network dynamics in neuronal cultures. In contrast with more traditional methods, such as patch-clamping, which can only record activity from a single cell, MEAs can record simultaneously from multiple sites in a network, without requiring the arduous task of placing each electrode individually. Moreover, numerous control and stimulation configurations can be easily applied within the same experimental setup, allowing for a broad range of dynamics to be explored. One of the key dynamics of interest in these in vitro studies has been the extent to which cultured networks display properties indicative of learning. Mouse neuronal cells cultured on MEAs display an increase in response following training induced by electrical stimulation. This protocol demonstrates how to culture neuronal cells on MEAs; successfully record from over 95% of the plated dishes; establish a protocol to train the networks to respond to patterns of stimulation; and sort, plot, and interpret the results from such experiments. The use of a proprietary system for stimulating and recording neuronal cultures is demonstrated. Software packages are also used to sort neuronal units. A custom-designed graphical user interface is used to visualize post-stimulus time histograms, inter-burst intervals, and burst duration, as well as to compare the cellular response to stimulation before and after a training protocol. Finally, representative results and future directions of this research effort are discussed.

Mouse neuronal cells cultured on multi-electrode arrays display an increase in response following electrical stimulation. This protocol demonstrates how to culture neurons, how to record activity, and how to establish a protocol to train the networks to respond to patterns of stimulation.

Micro-electrode arrays (MEAs) can be used to investigate drug toxicity, design paradigms for next-generation personalized medicine, and study network ...

Concurrent Recording of Co-localized Electroencephalography and Local Field Potential in Rodent

Although electroencephalography (EEG) is widely used as a non-invasive technique for recording neural activities of the brain, our understanding of the neurogenesis of EEG is still very limited. Local field potentials (LFPs) recorded via a multi-laminar microelectrode can provide a more detailed account of simultaneous neural activity across different cortical layers in the neocortex, but the technique is invasive. Combining EEG and LFP measurements in a pre-clinical model can greatly enhance understanding of the neural mechanisms involved in the generation of EEG signals, and facilitate the derivation of a more realistic and biologically accurate mathematical model of EEG. A simple procedure for acquiring concurrent and co-localized EEG and multi-laminar LFP signals in the anesthetized rodent is presented here. We also investigated whether EEG signals were significantly affected by a burr hole drilled in the skull for the insertion of a microelectrode. Our results suggest that the burr hole has a negligible impact on EEG recordings.

This protocol describes a simple method for concurrent recording of co-localized electroencephalography (EEG) and multi-laminar local field potential in an anesthetized rat. A burr hole drilled in the skull for the insertion of a microelectrode is shown to produce negligible distortion of the EEG signal.

Although electroencephalography (EEG) is widely used as a non-invasive technique for recording neural activities of the brain, our understanding of the ...

Examining Monosynaptic Connections in Drosophila Using Tetrodotoxin Resistant Sodium Channels

Here, a new technique termed Tetrotoxin (TTX) Engineered Resistance for Probing Synapses (TERPS) is applied to test for monosynaptic connections between target neurons. The method relies on co-expression of a transgenic activator with the tetrodotoxin-resistant sodium channel, NaChBac, in a specific presynaptic neuron. Connections with putative post-synaptic partners are determined by whole-cell recordings in the presence of TTX, which blocks electrical activity in neurons that do not express NaChBac. This approach can be modified to work with any activator or calcium imaging as a reporter of connections. TERPS adds to the growing set of tools available for determining connectivity within networks. However, TERPS is unique in that it also reliably reports bulk or volume transmission and spillover transmission.

Examining Monosynaptic Connections in Drosophila Using Tetrodotoxin Resistant Sodium Channels

This article features a method to test the monosynaptic connections between neurons by employing tetrodotoxin and the tetrodotoxin-resistant sodium channel, NaChBac.

Here, a new technique termed Tetrotoxin (TTX) Engineered Resistance for Probing Synapses (TERPS) is applied to test for monosynaptic connections between ...

Evaluation of Hemisphere Lateralization with Bilateral Local Field Potential Recording in Secondary Motor Cortex of Mice

This article demonstrates complete, detailed procedures for both in vivo bilateral recording and analysis of local field potential (LFP) in the cortical areas of mice, which are useful for evaluating possible laterality deficits, as well as for assessing brain connectivity and coupling of neural network activities in rodents. The pathological mechanisms underlying Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD), a common neurodegenerative disease, remain largely unknown. Altered brain laterality has been demonstrated in aging people, but whether or not abnormal lateralization is one of the early signs of AD has not been determined. To investigate this, we recorded bilateral LFPs in 3-5-month-old AD model mice, APP/PS1, together with littermate wild type (WT) controls. The LFPs of the left and right secondary motor cortex (M2), specifically in the gamma band, were more synchronized in APP/PS1 mice than in WT controls, suggesting a declined hemispheric asymmetry of bilateral M2 in this AD mouse model. Notably, the recording and data analysis processes are flexible and easy to carry out, and can also be applied to other brain pathways when conducting experiments that focus on neuronal circuits.

We present in vivo electrophysiological recording of the local field potential (LFP) in bilateral secondary motor cortex (M2) of mice, which can be applied to evaluate hemisphere lateralization. The study revealed altered levels of synchronization between the left and right M2 in APP/PS1 mice compared to WT controls.

This article demonstrates complete, detailed procedures for both in vivo bilateral recording and analysis of local field potential (LFP) in the cortical ...

Recording Network Activity in Spinal Nociceptive Circuits Using Microelectrode Arrays

The roles and connectivity of specific types of neurons within the spinal cord dorsal horn (DH) are being delineated at a rapid rate to provide an increasingly detailed view of the circuits underpinning spinal pain processing. However, the effects of these connections for broader network activity in the DH remain less well understood because most studies focus on the activity of single neurons and small microcircuits. Alternatively, the use of microelectrode arrays (MEAs), which can monitor electrical activity across many cells, provides high spatial and temporal resolution of neural activity. Here, the use of MEAs with mouse spinal cord slices to study DH activity induced by chemically stimulating DH circuits with 4-aminopyridine (4-AP) is described. The resulting rhythmic activity is restricted to the superficial DH, stable over time, blocked by tetrodotoxin, and can be investigated in different slice orientations. Together, this preparation provides a platform to investigate DH circuit activity in tissue from na&#239;ve animals, animal models of chronic pain, and mice with genetically altered nociceptive function. Furthermore, MEA recordings in 4-AP-stimulated spinal cord slices can be used as a rapid screening tool to assess the capacity of novel antinociceptive compounds to disrupt activity in the spinal cord DH.

The combined use of microelectrode array technology and 4-aminopyridine-induced chemical stimulation for investigating network-level nociceptive activity in the spinal cord dorsal horn is outlined.

The roles and connectivity of specific types of neurons within the spinal cord dorsal horn (DH) are being delineated at a rapid rate to provide an ...

Viewing Microtubule Networks in &lt;em&gt;Drosophila&lt;/em&gt; Neuromuscular Junctions and Muscle Cells

Using Drosophila Larval Neuromuscular Junction and Muscle Cells to Visualize Microtubule Network

The microtubule network is an essential component of the nervous system. Mutations in many microtubules regulatory proteins are associated with neurodevelopmental disorders and neurological diseases, such as microtubule-associated protein Tau to neurodegenerative diseases, microtubule severing protein Spastin and Katanin 60 cause hereditary spastic paraplegia and neurodevelopmental abnormalities, respectively. Detection of microtubule networks in neurons is advantageous for elucidating the pathogenesis of neurological disorders. However, the small size of neurons and the dense arrangement of axonal microtubule bundles make visualizing the microtubule networks challenging. In this study, we describe a method for dissection of the larval neuromuscular junction and muscle cells, as well as immunostaining of &#945;-tubulin and microtubule-associated protein Futsch to visualize microtubule networks in Drosophila melanogaster. The neuromuscular junction permits us to observe both pre-and post-synaptic microtubules, and the large size of muscle cells in Drosophila larva allows for clear visualization of the microtubule network. Here, by mutating and overexpressing Katanin 60 in Drosophila melanogaster,&#160;and then examining the microtubule networks in the neuromuscular junction and muscle cells, we&#160;accurately reveal the regulatory role of Katanin 60 in neurodevelopment. Therefore, combined with the powerful genetic tools of Drosophila&#160;melanogaster, this protocol greatly facilitates genetic screening and microtubule dynamics analysis for the role of microtubule network regulatory proteins in the nervous system.

Author Spotlight: Understanding Microtubule Network in Drosophila Neuromuscular Junctions 

Here, we present a detailed protocol to visualize the microtubule networks in neuromuscular junctions and muscle cells. Combined with the powerful genetic tools of Drosophila melanogaster, this protocol greatly facilitates genetic screening and microtubule-dynamics analysis for the role of microtubule network regulatory proteins in the nervous system.

The microtubule network is an essential component of the nervous system. Mutations in many microtubules regulatory proteins are associated with ...

Micro-Drive System Assembly and Electrode Array Implantation for Multichannel Recording in Mice

Begin by assembling the Microdrive system. Connect two computer-designed boards using two stulls and a screw that holds the movable Microdrive, and attach the connector to one board. Ensure the Microdrive can carry two sets of eight guide tubes for each side of the motor cortex or MC region.Cut the guide tubes to the same length. Cut 16 nichrome wires, each measuring approximately five centimeters long and 35 micrometers in diameter. Load the wires into the guide tubes and apply glue to fix them.Strip the wire insulation and twine each exposed wire to each pin from the connector following the channel map and the reference and ground electrodes, then slowly coat conducting paint onto each pin. Cover the pins using epoxy resin, then perform gold plating via an impedance tester to reduce the impedance of the electrode tips to approximately 350 kiloohms. For electrode array implantation, fix the anesthetized mouse in a stereotaxic apparatus and use a temperature controller to maintain its rectal temperature at 37 degrees Celsius.Then make a small midline incision to expose the skull. Remove the residual tissue using scissors and clean the skull with sterile saline-soaked cotton buds. Using a glass microelectrode filled with ink, mark the desired locations of the bilateral MC for implantation.Next, using a skull drill, carefully drill two small holes on both the left and right sides of the coordinated skull in the MC regions. Gently remove the dura mater from the holes with fine forceps. Then insert the Microdrive system into the center of the holes, using a micromanipulator at 10 micrometers per second.After finishing the insertion, fill the petroleum jelly into the dental cement walls and join the bottom plate of the Microdrive system and the dental cement walls with the mixed dental cement.

LFP Recording in Mouse Brain for Cognitive Research and Drug Analysis

Dual Extracellular Recordings in the Mouse Hippocampus and Prefrontal Cortex

The technique of recording local field potentials (LFPs) is an electrophysiological method used to measure the electrical activity of localized neuronal populations. It serves as a crucial tool in cognitive research, particularly in brain regions like the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex. Dual LFP recordings between these areas are of particular interest as they allow the exploration of interregional signal communication. However, methods for performing these recordings are rarely described, and most commercial recording devices are either expensive or lack adaptability to accommodate specific experimental designs. This study presents a comprehensive protocol for performing dual-electrode LFP recordings in the mouse hippocampus and the prefrontal cortex to investigate the effects of antipsychotic drugs and potassium channel modulators on LFP properties in these areas. The technique enables the measurement of LFP properties, including power spectra within each brain region and coherence between the two. Additionally, a low-cost, custom-designed recording device has been developed for these experiments. In summary, this protocol provides a means to record signals with high signal-to-noise ratios in different brain regions, facilitating the investigation of interregional information communication within the brain.

Author Spotlight: Studying Drug Impacts on Brain Signals Using Dual LFP Recording Protocol in Mice

This protocol outlines the use of a custom-designed recording device and electrodes to record local field potentials and investigate information flow in the mouse hippocampus and prefrontal cortex.

The technique of recording local field potentials (LFPs) is an electrophysiological method used to measure the electrical activity of localized neuronal ...