We acknowledge Juliann Jaumotte for the idea of saving on the volumes of reagents in the ATP assay. We are deeply grateful for the superb administrative support of Mary Caruso, Deb Willson, and Jackie Farrer and to the Mylan School of Pharmacy for providing financial support for these studies. Thanks are also due to the Hunkele Dreaded Diseases Foundation and the Parkinson&#8217;s and Movement Disorders Foundation for their financial support of the primary neuronal studies.

None of the authors have any conflicts to disclose.

We have found that signal strength in all three viability assays is linear and correlated with plating density. However, not all the assays are equally sensitive to 2-fold or 1.5-fold changes in plating density. For N2a cells, the infrared assays are less sensitive than the ATP assay, particularly at lower plating densities. Although the infrared assays are less sensitive than ATP, the DRAQ5 + Sapphire assays and the &#945;-tubulin assays are in good agreement in that they reveal the highly protective impact of N-acetyl ...

The most common viability assay in the biological sciences involves cell counts. This is evidenced by an analysis of the top (most recent) 200 publications that appeared in PubMed with either of the keywords &#8220;in vitro&#8221; or &#8220;culture&#8221; on 4/29/2013 and 4/30/2013. Of these publications, 23.5% used cell count assays, including manual cell number counts, automated cell number counts with imaging software, and Trypan blue exclusion. The Live/Dead assay was used in 1% of these publications. The number of publications using the MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assay for metabolic viability was 11%. This survey of the literature also shows that the number of publications using assays such as MTT in conjunction with cell count assays was only 3.5%. Despite the trend to use one viability assay by itself, assessing cellular function in combination with cell number seems the best choice for assessing cellular integrity. Cell counts by themselves are not sufficient because the remaining cells may not be functional or healthy even though they are present in the well1,2. Conversely, functional measures such as ATP may increase or decrease in the absence of parallel changes in the number of cells. The uncoupling of metabolic readouts from cell number suggests that ATP and MTT assays should never be used as the sole viability assay. In the present report, three viability assays that survey both cellular structures and metabolic function are described, for a more comprehensive view of cellular integrity than any one assay by itself can afford.

Two of our assays require an infrared imager that measures fluorescence in the 700 and 800 nm channels. Noise is low in the infrared wavelengths, leading to higher signal-to-noise ratios3. The Odyssey imager that we use has a 4.5 log dynamic range and a bit-depth of 16, translating to 216 or 65,536 shades of infrared. This can be contrasted to 8-bit color imaging, which only affords 28 or 256 shades of color for each wavelength. Thus, 16-bit imaging has finer resolution. It should be noted that the original infrared images are often pseudocolored green (800 nm) and red (700 nm) in published reports for presentation. Odyssey imagers are commonly used both for Western blotting and In-Cell Westerns4-7. In-Cell Westerns on formaldehyde-fixed cells use primary antibodies against any protein of interest and label them in turn with infrared fluorescent secondary antibodies. This technique is known to be particularly useful for phosphorylation endpoints6. In our In-Cell Westerns, we stain fixed cells for cytoskeletal proteins &#945;-tubulin or the neuronal microtubule associated protein 2 (MAP2) in the 800 nm channel. These proteins are abundant enough to yield high signal-to-noise ratios. We also stain our plates in the 700 nm channel for nuclei with the DRAQ5 stain and for the cytoplasm with the Sapphire stain. Both the cytoskeletal proteins and the DRAQ5 + Sapphire stains thus reflect cellular structures.

The third viability assay measures metabolic function and is called &#8220;Cell Titer Glo.&#8221; In this luciferase-based assay, luminescence values are in direct proportion to ATP levels. ATP assays are commonly used to quantify viable cells8-12. However, including the word &#8220;titer&#8221; in the name of the assay is somewhat of a misnomer because ATP output per cell can change as a function of toxin treatments and is therefore not always in proportion to cell number8. ATP levels can also be affected by circadian rhythms13 and by cell division14 and cell differentiation15. Nevertheless, the ATP assay shown here is simple to perform and useful because ATP is a robust measure of metabolic viability16-21, if not cell number per se. Using this assay to complement the infrared In-Cell Westerns therefore yields a more comprehensive picture of cellular integrity than any one assay alone.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="821">
	<colgroup>
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
	</colgroup>
	<tbody>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:43px;width:109px;">Cell Titer Glo</td>
			<td style="width:112px;">Promega</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">G7572</td>
			<td style="width:507px;">Buy in 100 ml quantities and aliquot, instead of purchasing the more expensive 10 ml quantity. Reconstituted, unused reagents can be refrozen at -20 &#176;C for at least 21 weeks</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:43px;width:109px;">18% Formalin</td>
			<td style="width:112px;">Thermo-Shandon</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">9990244</td>
			<td style="width:507px;">Buying this fixative avoids the weighing out of formaldehyde powders and boiling of the solution; exposure to vapors is thereby minimized</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:43px;width:109px;">Sucrose</td>
			<td style="width:112px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">S0389</td>
			<td style="width:507px;">It is not essential to add this to formaldehyde solutions but it improves the appearance of the fixed cells</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:43px;width:109px;">Odyssey Block</td>
			<td style="width:112px;">LI-COR</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">927-40003</td>
			<td style="width:507px;">This fish serum can be bought in bulk and frozen at -20 &#176;C for long term use</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:43px;width:109px;">Triton-X 100</td>
			<td style="width:112px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">21568</td>
			<td style="width:507px;">We store a stock solution of 10% Triton-X 100 in sterile water at 4 &#176;C</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:43px;width:109px;">Sodium Phosphate Monobasic</td>
			<td style="width:112px;">Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">S468</td>
			<td style="width:507px;">One can also buy PBS tablets or 10x PBS solutions, but they are more expensive</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:43px;width:109px;">Sodium Phosphate Dibasic</td>
			<td style="width:112px;">Fisher</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">S373</td>
			<td style="width:507px;">See above</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:43px;width:109px;">Sodium Azide (250x)</td>
			<td style="width:112px;">Ricca Chemical Company</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">7144.8-16</td>
			<td style="width:507px;">Do not buy the powder because sodium azide is very toxic. We store all our used antibodies in 1x sodium azide at 4 &#176;C until they become contaminated with debris</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:43px;width:109px;">Mouse anti-&#945;-tubulin</td>
			<td style="width:112px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">T5168</td>
			<td style="width:507px;">This antibody is expensive but can be greatly diluted and is highly specific</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:43px;width:109px;">Mouse anti-MAP2</td>
			<td style="width:112px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">M9942</td>
			<td style="width:507px;">This antibody is expensive but is highly specific (a prerequisite for In-Cell Westerns)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:43px;width:109px;">800 nm Goat anti-mouse IgG</td>
			<td style="width:112px;">LI-COR</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">926-32210</td>
			<td style="width:507px;">Other companies also sell infrared secondary antibodies. Be sure to purchase the highly cross-adsorbed antibodies and note that concentrations of IgGs may vary with the source</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:43px;width:109px;">DRAQ5</td>
			<td style="width:112px;">Biostatus</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">DR50200</td>
			<td style="width:507px;">This compound used to be sold by LI-COR at 1 mM</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:43px;width:109px;">Sapphire</td>
			<td style="width:112px;">LI-COR</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">928-40022</td>
			<td style="width:507px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:43px;width:196px;">Luminometer</td>
			<td style="width:129px;">PerkinElmer</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">VICTOR3 1420 multilabel counter</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:43px;width:196px;">Odyssey Imager</td>
			<td style="width:129px;">LI-COR</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">9201-01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:43px;width:196px;">Shaker/Mixer</td>
			<td style="width:129px;">Research Products International</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">248555</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

viability assays for cells in culture

Manual cell counts on a microscope are a sensitive means of assessing cellular viability but are time-consuming and therefore expensive. Computerized viability assays are expensive in terms of equipment but can be faster and more objective than manual cell counts. The present report describes the use of three such viability assays. Two of these assays are infrared and one is luminescent. Both infrared assays rely on a 16&#160;bit Odyssey Imager. One infrared assay uses the DRAQ5 stain for nuclei combined with the Sapphire stain for cytosol and is visualized in the 700 nm channel. The other infrared assay, an In-Cell Western, uses antibodies against cytoskeletal proteins (&#945;-tubulin or microtubule associated protein 2) and labels them in the 800 nm channel. The third viability assay is a commonly used luminescent assay for ATP, but we use a quarter of the recommended volume to save on cost. These measurements are all linear and correlate with the number of cells plated, but vary in sensitivity. All three assays circumvent time-consuming microscopy and sample the entire well, thereby reducing sampling error. Finally, all of the assays can easily be completed within one day of the end of the experiment, allowing greater numbers of experiments to be performed within short timeframes. However, they all rely on the assumption that cell numbers remain in proportion to signal strength after treatments, an assumption that is sometimes not met, especially for cellular ATP. Furthermore, if cells increase or decrease in size after treatment, this might affect signal strength without affecting cell number. We conclude that all viability assays, including manual counts, suffer from a number of caveats, but that computerized viability assays are well worth the initial investment. Using all three assays together yields a comprehensive view of cellular structure and function.

The rate-limiting factor in these experiments is the infrared staining, as the ATP assay is relatively brief in duration. For the infrared assays, we anticipate that eight 96-well plates can be stained and scanned within one day by staggering two batches of four plates each (see Figure 1). This estimation assumes 20 min of fixation, 30 min of washing, 30 min of blocking, 2 hr primary antibody incubation followed by 30 min of washes, 1 hr secondary antibody incubation followed by 30 min of washes, 30 min ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Viability Assays for Cells in Culture at JoVE.com

Viability Assays for Cells in Culture

Therapeutic compounds are often first examined in vitro with viability assays. Blind cell counts by a human observer can be highly sensitive to small changes in cell number but do not assess function. Computerized viability assays, as described here, can assess both structure and function in an objective manner.

Manual cell counts on a microscope are a sensitive means of assessing cellular viability but are time-consuming and therefore expensive. Computerized ...

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45.9K Views.  Duquesne University. Therapeutic compounds are often first examined in vitro with viability assays. Blind cell counts by a human observer can be highly sensitive to small changes in cell number but do not assess function. Computerized viability assays, as described here, can assess both structure and function in an objective manner.

Video: Viability Assays for Cells in Culture

Counting and Determining the Viability of Cultured Cells

Determining the number of cells in culture is important in standardization of culture conditions and in performing accurate quantitation experiments. A hemacytometer is a thick glass slide with a central area designed as a counting chamber. Cell suspension is applied to a defined area and counted so cell density can be calculated. 

Determining the number of cells in culture is important in standardization of culture conditions and in performing accurate quantitation experiments. In this video, we demonstrate how cells are counted using a hemacytometer.

Determining the number of cells in culture is important in standardization of culture conditions and in performing accurate quantitation experiments. A ...

Neurocircuit Assays for Seizures in Epilepsy Mutants of Drosophila

Drosophila melanogaster is a useful tool for studying seizure like activity. A variety of mutants in which seizures can be induced through either physical shock or electrical stimulation is available for study of various aspects of seizure activity and behavior. All flies, including wild-type, will undergo seizure-like activity if stimulated at a high enough voltage. Seizure like activity is an all-or-nothing response and each genotype has a specific seizure threshold. The seizure threshold of a specific genotype of fly can be altered either by treatment with a drug or by genetic suppression or enhancement. The threshold is easily measured by electrophysiology. Seizure-like activity can be induced via high frequency electrical stimulation delivered directly to the brain and recorded through the dorsal longitudinal muscles (DLMs) in the thorax. The DLMs are innervated by part of the giant fiber system. Starting with low voltage, high frequency stimulation, and subsequently raising the voltage in small increments, the seizure threshold for a single fly can be measured.

Neurocircuit Assays for Seizures in Epilepsy Mutants of Drosophila

Using high frequency electrical stimulation, seizure-like activity can be induced in Drosophila. This activity is easily recorded from the giant fiber system.

Drosophila melanogaster is a useful tool for studying seizure like activity. A variety of mutants in which seizures can be induced through either physical ...

Analysis of Schwann-astrocyte Interactions Using In Vitro Assays

Schwann cells are one of the commonly used cells in repair strategies following spinal cord injuries. Schwann cells are capable of supporting axonal regeneration and sprouting by secreting growth factors 1,2 and providing growth promoting adhesion molecules 3 and extracellular matrix molecules 4. In addition they myelinate the demyelinated axons at the site of injury 5.
However following transplantation, Schwann cells do not migrate from the site of implant and do not intermingle with the host astrocytes 6,7. This results in formation of a sharp boundary between the Schwann cells and astrocytes, creating an obstacle for growing axons trying to exit the graft back into the host tissue proximally and distally. Astrocytes in contact with Schwann cells also undergo hypertrophy and up-regulate the inhibitory molecules 8-13.
In vitro assays have been used to model Schwann cell-astrocyte interactions and have been important in understanding the mechanism underlying the cellular behaviour.
These in vitro assays include boundary assay, where a co-culture is made using two different cells with each cell type occupying different territories with only a small gap separating the two cell fronts. As the cells divide and migrate, the two cellular fronts get closer to each other and finally collide. This allows the behaviour of the two cellular populations to be analyzed at the boundary. Another variation of the same technique is to mix the two cellular populations in culture and over time the two cell types segregate with Schwann cells clumped together as islands in between astrocytes together creating multiple Schwann-astrocyte boundaries.
The second assay used in studying the interaction of two cell types is the migration assay where cellular movement can be tracked on the surface of the other cell type monolayer 14,15. This assay is commonly known as inverted coverslip assay. Schwann cells are cultured on small glass fragments and they are inverted face down onto the surface of astrocyte monolayers and migration is assessed from the edge of coverslip.
Both assays have been instrumental in studying the underlying mechanisms involved in the cellular exclusion and boundary formation. Some of the molecules identified using these techniques include N-Cadherins 15, Chondroitin Sulphate proteoglycans(CSPGs) 16,17, FGF/Heparin 18, Eph/Ephrins19.
This article intends to describe boundary assay and migration assay in stepwise fashion and elucidate the possible technical problems that might occur.

Analysis of Schwann-astrocyte Interactions Using In Vitro Assays

This article intends to describe in stepwise fashion the commonly used in vitro assays used in studying Schwann cell-asrtocyte interactions.

Schwann cells are one of the commonly used cells in repair strategies following spinal cord injuries. Schwann cells are capable of supporting axonal ...

Isolation and Primary Culture of Rat Hepatic Cells

Primary hepatocyte culture is a valuable tool that has been extensively used in basic research of liver function, disease, pathophysiology, pharmacology and other related subjects. The method based on two-step collagenase perfusion for isolation of intact hepatocytes was first introduced by Berry and Friend in 1969 1 and, since then, has undergone many modifications. The most commonly used technique was described by Seglenin 1976 2. Essentially, hepatocytes are dissociated from anesthetized adult rats by a non-recirculating collagenase perfusion through the portal vein. The isolated cells are then filtered through a 100 &mu;m pore size mesh nylon filter, and cultured onto plates. After 4-hour culture, the medium is replaced with serum-containing or serum-free medium, e.g. HepatoZYME-SFM, for additional time to culture. These procedures require surgical and sterile culture steps that can be better demonstrated by video than by text. Here, we document the detailed steps for these procedures by both video and written protocol, which allow consistently in the generation of viable hepatocytes in large numbers.

Primary hepatocytes provide a valuable tool to evaluate biochemical, molecular, and metabolic functions in a physiologically relevant experimental system. We describe a reliable protocol for rat in situ liver perfusion, which consistently generates viable hepatocytes up to 1.0 &times; 108 cells per preparation with cell viability between 88 ~ 96%.

Primary hepatocyte culture is a valuable tool that has been extensively used in basic research of liver function, disease, pathophysiology, pharmacology ...

Assessment of Mitochondrial Functions and Cell Viability in Renal Cells Overexpressing Protein Kinase C Isozymes

The protein kinase C (PKC) family of isozymes is involved in numerous physiological and pathological processes. Our recent data demonstrate that PKC regulates mitochondrial function and cellular energy status. Numerous reports demonstrated that the activation of PKC-a and PKC-&epsilon; improves mitochondrial function in the ischemic heart and mediates cardioprotection. In contrast, we have demonstrated that PKC-&alpha; and PKC-&epsilon; are involved in nephrotoxicant-induced mitochondrial dysfunction and cell death in kidney cells. Therefore, the goal of this study was to develop an in vitro model of renal cells maintaining active mitochondrial functions in which PKC isozymes could be selectively activated or inhibited to determine their role in regulation of oxidative phosphorylation and cell survival. Primary cultures of renal proximal tubular cells (RPTC) were cultured in improved conditions resulting in mitochondrial respiration and activity of mitochondrial enzymes similar to those in RPTC in vivo. Because traditional transfection techniques (Lipofectamine, electroporation) are inefficient in primary cultures and have adverse effects on mitochondrial function, PKC-&epsilon; mutant cDNAs were delivered to RPTC through adenoviral vectors. This approach results in transfection of over 90% cultured RPTC.
Here, we present methods for assessing the role of PKC-&epsilon; in: 1. regulation of mitochondrial morphology and functions associated with ATP synthesis, and 2. survival of RPTC in primary culture. PKC-&epsilon; is activated by overexpressing the constitutively active PKC-&epsilon; mutant. PKC-&epsilon; is inhibited by overexpressing the inactive mutant of PKC-&epsilon;. Mitochondrial function is assessed by examining respiration, integrity of the respiratory chain, activities of respiratory complexes and F0F1-ATPase, ATP production rate, and ATP content. Respiration is assessed in digitonin-permeabilized RPTC as state 3 (maximum respiration in the presence of excess substrates and ADP) and uncoupled respirations. Integrity of the respiratory chain is assessed by measuring activities of all four complexes of the respiratory chain in isolated mitochondria. Capacity of oxidative phosphorylation is evaluated by measuring the mitochondrial membrane potential, ATP production rate, and activity of F0F1-ATPase. Energy status of RPTC is assessed by determining the intracellular ATP content. Mitochondrial morphology in live cells is visualized using MitoTracker Red 580, a fluorescent dye that specifically accumulates in mitochondria, and live monolayers are examined under a fluorescent microscope. RPTC viability is assessed using annexin V/propidium iodide staining followed by flow cytometry to determine apoptosis and oncosis.
These methods allow for a selective activation/inhibition of individual PKC isozymes to assess their role in cellular functions in a variety of physiological and pathological conditions that can be reproduced in in vitro.

The effects of activation of protein kinase C (PKC) isozymes on mitochondrial functions associated with respiration and oxidative phosphorylation and on cell viability are described. The approach adapts adenoviral technique to selectively overexpress PKC isozymes in primary cell culture and a variety of assays to determine mitochondrial functions and energy status of the cell.

The protein kinase C (PKC) family of isozymes is involved in numerous physiological and pathological processes. Our recent data demonstrate that PKC ...

Coupled Assays for Monitoring Protein Refolding in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Proteostasis, defined as the combined processes of protein folding/biogenesis, refolding/repair, and degradation, is a delicate cellular balance that must be maintained to avoid deleterious consequences 1. External or internal factors that disrupt this balance can lead to protein aggregation, toxicity and cell death. In humans this is a major contributing factor to the symptoms associated with neurodegenerative disorders such as Huntington's, Parkinson's, and Alzheimer's diseases 10. It is therefore essential that the proteins involved in maintenance of proteostasis be identified in order to develop treatments for these debilitating diseases. This article describes techniques for monitoring in vivo protein folding at near-real time resolution using the model protein firefly luciferase fused to green fluorescent protein (FFL-GFP). FFL-GFP is a unique model chimeric protein as the FFL moiety is extremely sensitive to stress-induced misfolding and aggregation, which inactivates the enzyme 12. Luciferase activity is monitored using an enzymatic assay, and the GFP moiety provides a method of visualizing soluble or aggregated FFL using automated microscopy. These coupled methods incorporate two parallel and technically independent approaches to analyze both refolding and functional reactivation of an enzyme after stress. Activity recovery can be directly correlated with kinetics of disaggregation and re-solubilization to better understand how protein quality control factors such as protein chaperones collaborate to perform these functions. In addition, gene deletions or mutations can be used to test contributions of specific proteins or protein subunits to this process. In this article we examine the contributions of the protein disaggregase Hsp104 13, known to partner with the Hsp40/70/nucleotide exchange factor (NEF) refolding system 5, to protein refolding to validate this approach.

Coupled Assays for Monitoring Protein Refolding in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

This article describes the use of a firefly luciferase-GFP fusion protein to investigate in vivo protein folding in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Using this reagent, refolding of a model heat-denatured protein can be monitored simultaneously by fluorescence microscopy and an enzymatic assay to probe the roles of proteostasis network components in protein quality control.

Proteostasis, defined as the combined processes of protein folding/biogenesis, refolding/repair, and degradation, is a delicate cellular balance that must ...

Efficient Generation Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells from Human Somatic Cells with Sendai-virus

A few years ago, the establishment of human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) ushered in a new era in biomedicine. Potential uses of human iPSCs include modeling pathogenesis of human genetic diseases, autologous cell therapy after gene correction, and personalized drug screening by providing a source of patient-specific and symptom relevant cells. However, there are several hurdles to overcome, such as eliminating the remaining reprogramming factor transgene expression after human iPSCs production. More importantly, residual transgene expression in undifferentiated human iPSCs could hamper proper differentiations and misguide the interpretation of disease-relevant in vitro phenotypes. With this reason, integration-free and/or transgene-free human iPSCs have been developed using several methods, such as adenovirus, the piggyBac system, minicircle vector, episomal vectors, direct protein delivery and synthesized mRNA. However, efficiency of reprogramming using integration-free methods is quite low in most cases.
Here, we present a method to isolate human iPSCs by using Sendai-virus (RNA virus) based reprogramming system. This reprogramming method shows consistent results and high efficiency in cost-effective manner.

Here, we present our established method to reprogram human somatic cells into transgene-free human iPSCs with Sendai virus, which shows consistent outcome and enhanced efficiency.

A few years ago, the establishment of human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) ushered in a new era in biomedicine. Potential uses of human iPSCs ...

Massively Parallel Reporter Assays in Cultured Mammalian Cells

The genetic reporter assay is a well-established and powerful tool for dissecting the relationship between DNA sequences and their gene regulatory activities. The potential throughput of this assay has, however, been limited by the need to individually clone and assay the activity of each sequence on interest using protein fluorescence or enzymatic activity as a proxy for regulatory activity. Advances in high-throughput DNA synthesis and sequencing technologies have recently made it possible to overcome these limitations by multiplexing the construction and interrogation of large libraries of reporter constructs. This protocol describes implementation of a Massively Parallel Reporter Assay (MPRA) that allows direct comparison of hundreds of thousands of putative regulatory sequences in a single cell culture dish.

The genetic reporter assay is a well-established and powerful tool for dissecting the relationship between DNA sequences and their gene regulatory activities. Coupling candidate regulatory elements to reporter genes that carry identifying sequence tags enables massive parallelization of these assays.

The genetic reporter assay is a well-established and powerful tool for dissecting the relationship between DNA sequences and their gene regulatory ...

Nephrotoxin Microinjection in Zebrafish to Model Acute Kidney Injury

The kidneys are susceptible to harm from exposure to chemicals they filter from the bloodstream. This can lead to organ injury associated with a rapid decline in renal function and development of the clinical syndrome known as acute kidney injury (AKI). Pharmacological agents used to treat medical circumstances ranging from bacterial infection to cancer, when administered individually or in combination with other drugs, can initiate AKI. Zebrafish are a useful animal model to study the chemical effects on renal function in vivo, as they form an embryonic kidney comprised of nephron functional units that are conserved with higher vertebrates, including humans. Further, zebrafish can be utilized to perform genetic and chemical screens, which provide opportunities to elucidate the cellular and molecular facets of AKI and develop therapeutic strategies such as the identification of nephroprotective molecules. Here, we demonstrate how microinjection into the zebrafish embryo can be utilized as a paradigm for nephrotoxin studies.

Renal injuries incurred from nephrotoxins, which include drugs ranging from antibiotics to chemotherapeutics, can result in complex disorders whose pathogenesis remains incompletely understood. This protocol demonstrates how zebrafish can be used for disease modeling of these conditions, which can be applied to the identification of renoprotective measures.

The kidneys are susceptible to harm from exposure to chemicals they filter from the bloodstream. This can lead to organ injury associated with a rapid ...

Assays for the Degradation of Misfolded Proteins in Cells

Protein misfolding and aggregation are associated with various neurodegenerative diseases. Cellular mechanisms that recognize and degrade misfolded proteins may serve as potential therapeutic targets. To distinguish degradation of misfolding-prone proteins from other mechanisms that regulate their levels, one important method is to measure protein half-life in cells. However, this can be challenging because misfolding-prone proteins may exist in different forms, including the native form and misfolded forms of distinct characteristics. Here we describe assays to examine the half-life of misfolded proteins in mammalian cells using a highly aggregation-prone protein, Ataxin-1 with an extended polyglutamine (polyQ) stretch, and a conformationally unstable luciferase mutant as models. Cycloheximide chase is combined with cell fractionation to examine the turnover rate of misfolding-prone proteins in various cellular fractions. We further depict a fluorescence-based assay using an enhanced green fluorescence protein (EGFP)-fusion of the luciferase mutant, which can be adapted for high throughput screening on a microplate-reader.

This report describes protocols for measuring degradation rates of misfolded proteins by either western blot or fluorescence-based assays. The methods can be applied to analysis of other misfolded proteins and for high throughput screening.

Protein misfolding and aggregation are associated with various neurodegenerative diseases. Cellular mechanisms that recognize and degrade misfolded ...