The authors thank Christiane Pahrmann for technical assistance. S.S. received funding from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) (SCHR992/3-2 and SCHR992/4-2).

All animal work should be carried out according to relevant animal care guidelines. Obtain institutional approval for animal work prior to beginning protocol.
1. Myointimal Hyperplasia Model (A)
For the intimal hyperplasia model, purchase C57BL/6J (Stock number 000664, C57BL/6J) mice at the age of 8 weeks weighing approximately 25 g. House mice for these experiments under conventional conditions; feed mice standard mouse chow and provide water ad ...

<ol>
	<li>Manuel, D. G., Leung, M., Nguyen, K., Tanuseputro, P., Johansen, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Burden+of+cardiovascular+disease+in+Canada.">Burden of cardiovascular disease in Canada.</a> Can J Cardiol. 19, 997-1004 (2003).</li><li>ER, O. B., Ma, X., Simard, T., Pourdjabbar, A., Hibbert, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Pathogenesis+of+neointima+formation+following+vascular+injury.">Pathogenesis of neointima formation following vascular injury.</a> Cardiovasc Hematol Disord Drug Targets. 11, 30-39 (2011).</li><li>Ross, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+pathogenesis+of+atherosclerosis:+a+perspective+for+the+1990s.">The pathogenesis of atherosclerosis: a perspective for the 1990s.</a> Nature. 362, 801-809 (1993).</li><li>Meng, X., Zhang, F., Valji, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ultrasound+guidance+for+the+creation+of+a+small+animal+model+of+aortic+injury.">Ultrasound guidance for the creation of a small animal model of aortic injury.</a> J Vasc Interv Radiol. 22, 1193-1197 (2011).</li><li>Deuse, T., Koyanagi, T., Erben, R. G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sustained+inhibition+of+epsilon+protein+kinase+C+inhibits+vascular+restenosis+after+balloon+injury+and+stenting.">Sustained inhibition of epsilon protein kinase C inhibits vascular restenosis after balloon injury and stenting.</a> Circulation. 122, 170-178 (2010).</li><li>Schrepfer, S., Deuse, T., Sultan, K. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inhibition+of+restenosis+development+after+mechanical+injury:+a+new+field+of+application+for+malononitrilamides.">Inhibition of restenosis development after mechanical injury: a new field of application for malononitrilamides.</a> Cardiology. 108, 128-137 (2007).</li><li>Tao, M., Mauro, C. R., Yu, P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+simplified+murine+intimal+hyperplasia+model+founded+on+a+focal+carotid+stenosis.">A simplified murine intimal hyperplasia model founded on a focal carotid stenosis.</a> Am J Pathol. 182, 277-287 (2013).</li><li>Kumar, A., Lindner, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Remodeling+with+neointima+formation+in+the+mouse+carotid+artery+after+cessation+of+blood+flow.">Remodeling with neointima formation in the mouse carotid artery after cessation of blood flow.</a> Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 17, 2238-2244 (1997).</li><li>Hua, X., Deuse, T., Michelakis, E. D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Human+internal+mammary+artery+(IMA)+transplantation+and+stenting:+a+human+model+to+study+the+development+of+in-stent+restenosis.">Human internal mammary artery (IMA) transplantation and stenting: a human model to study the development of in-stent restenosis.</a> J Vis Exp. , 3663 (2012).</li><li>Daugherty, A., Whitman, S. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Quantification+of+atherosclerosis+in+mice.">Quantification of atherosclerosis in mice.</a> Methods Mol Biol. , (2003).</li><li>Nakashima, Y., Plump, A. S., Raines, E. W., Breslow, J. L., Ross, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=ApoE-deficient+mice+develop+lesions+of+all+phases+of+atherosclerosis+throughout+the+arterial+tree.">ApoE-deficient mice develop lesions of all phases of atherosclerosis throughout the arterial tree.</a> Arterioscler Thromb. 14, 133-1340 (1994).</li><li>Zhang, Y., Li, L., You, J., Cao, J., Fu, X. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+7-difluoromethyl-5,+4'-dimethoxygenistein+on+aorta+atherosclerosis+in+hyperlipidemia+ApoE(-/-)+mice+induced+by+a+cholesterol-rich+diet.">Effect of 7-difluoromethyl-5, 4'-dimethoxygenistein on aorta atherosclerosis in hyperlipidemia ApoE(-/-) mice induced by a cholesterol-rich diet.</a> Drug Des Devel Ther. 7, 233-242 (2013).</li><li>Rudolph, T. K., Rudolph, V., Edreira, M. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nitro-fatty+acids+reduce+atherosclerosis+in+apolipoprotein+E-deficient+mice.">Nitro-fatty acids reduce atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice.</a> Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 30, 938-9345 (2010).</li><li>Rondelet, B., Kerbaul, F., Motte, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bosentan+for+the+prevention+of+overcirculation-induced+experimental+pulmonary+arterial+hypertension.">Bosentan for the prevention of overcirculation-induced experimental pulmonary arterial hypertension.</a> Circulation. 107, 1329-1335 (2003).</li><li>Zeibig, S., Li, Z., Wagner, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+the+oxLDL+binding+protein+Fc-CD68+on+plaque+extension+and+vulnerability+in+atherosclerosis.">Effect of the oxLDL binding protein Fc-CD68 on plaque extension and vulnerability in atherosclerosis.</a> Circ Res. 108, 695-703 (2011).</li><li>Painter, T. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Myointimal+hyperplasia:+pathogenesis+and+implications.+2.+Animal+injury+models+and+mechanical+factors.">Myointimal hyperplasia: pathogenesis and implications. 2. Animal injury models and mechanical factors.</a> Artificial organs. 15, 103-118 (1991).</li><li>Nitschke, Y., Weissen-Plenz, G., Terkeltaub, R., Rutsch, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Npp1+promotes+atherosclerosis+in+ApoE+knockout+mice.">Npp1 promotes atherosclerosis in ApoE knockout mice.</a> Journal of cellular and molecular. 15, 2273-2283 (2011).</li></ol>

Although both diseases result in similar symptoms in the patient, the underlying mechanisms of plaque development and therefore the treatment approaches are very different2. In different forms of arterial stenosis the clinical findings in the patients as well as the timeframe of plaque development depend on the underlying mechanism.
Depending on the clinical findings in the patient, different methods of sample analysis must be performed5,15. It is necessary to adapt the a...

In industrialized nations ischemic heart disease remains a leading cause of mortality1. The causes for coronary artery stenosis are manifold and include myointimal hyperplasia as well as atherosclerosis, with revascularization remaining the most common treatment strategy2. Research models that clearly distinguish between the mechanistic pathways of intimal hyperplasia and atherosclerosis are essential to investigate the pathobiological and pathophysiological processes in arterial plaque development. In this video two different mouse models used to study either the development of myointimal hyperplasia or atherosclerosis are introduced.
Myointimal hyperplasia is postulated to form via the &#8220;response-to-injury&#8221; paradigm originally described for atherosclerosis3. The mechanical disruption of the endothelial layer leads to an intense remodeling enhanced by paracrine effects. There are several different animal models commonly used to study myointimal hyperplasia. Some groups use metal devices in the ascending aorta of rats4. The aortic denudation model performed with a balloon catheter is also commonly used in laboratory rats5,6. The intimal hyperplasia model performed in laboratory mice7 implements ligation of the carotid artery and induces myointimal lesions8. In our lab, the abdominal aortic denudation model &#8211; to study the development of myointimal hyperplasia &#8211; as well as a humanized stent restenosis model9 are commonly used. This video emphasizes that choosing the proper experimental animal model is crucial for mechanistic or pathophysiologic studies of arterial stenosis.
Myointimal hyperplasia models must be distinguished from atherosclerosis models. For the latter, apolipoprotein E-deficient (ApoE -/-) mice in combination with western diet are commonly used to induce atherosclerotic lesions10,11,12,13. Examples for the induction of both of these types of myointimal disease in mice are shown here, along with different model-adapted options to analyze vessel stenosis14.

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inducing myointimal hyperplasia versus atherosclerosis in mice: an introduction of two valid models

Various in vivo laboratory rodent models for the induction of artery stenosis have been established to mimic diseases that include arterial plaque formation and stenosis, as observed for example in ischemic heart disease. Two highly reproducible mouse models&#160;&#8211;&#160;both resulting in artery stenosis but each underlying a different pathway of development&#160;&#8211; are introduced here. The models represent the two most common causes of artery stenosis; namely one mouse model for each myointimal hyperplasia, and atherosclerosis are shown. To induce myointimal hyperplasia, a balloon catheter injury of the abdominal aorta is performed. For the development of atherosclerotic plaque, the ApoE -/- mouse model in combination with western fatty diet is used. Different model-adapted options for the measurement and evaluation of the results are named and described in this manuscript. The introduction and comparison of these two models provides information for scientists to choose the appropriate artery stenosis model in accordance to the scientific question asked.

Figure 1 shows different analysis options and the induced disease state for both models. For the intimal hyperplasia model, the analysis of representative cross sections in trichrome staining is shown. From these cross sections, results like I/M ratios, maximum plaque thickness, maximum intimal thickness in the lumen, luminal obliteration in percent, as well as plaque area can be measured and calculated.
To evaluate the outcome of the atherosclerosis model, all methods named a...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Inducing Myointimal Hyperplasia Versus Atherosclerosis in Mice: An Introduction of Two Valid Models at JoVE.com

Inducing Myointimal Hyperplasia Versus Atherosclerosis in Mice: An Introduction of Two Valid Models

This video shows two models of intimal plaque development in murine arteries and emphasizes the differences in myointimal hyperplasia and atherosclerosis.

Various in vivo laboratory rodent models for the induction of artery stenosis have been established to mimic diseases that include arterial plaque ...

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12.0K Views.  University Hospital Hamburg. This video shows two models of intimal plaque development in murine arteries and emphasizes the differences in myointimal hyperplasia and atherosclerosis.

Video: Inducing Myointimal Hyperplasia Versus Atherosclerosis in Mice: An Introduction of Two Valid Models

This video shows two models of intimal plaque development in murine arteries and emphasizes the differences in myointimal hyperplasia and...

balloon-based injury to induce myointimal hyperplasia in the mouse abdominal aorta

Balloon-based Injury to Induce Myointimal Hyperplasia in the Mouse Abdominal Aorta

This article demonstrates a murine model to study the development of myointimal hyperplasia (MH) after aortic balloon...

vein interposition model: a suitable model to study bypass graft patency

Vein Interposition Model: A Suitable Model to Study Bypass Graft Patency

This video demonstrates a model to study the development of myointimal hyperplasia after venous interposition surgery in rats.

quantification of atherosclerosis in mice

Quantification of Atherosclerosis in Mice

Murine models of atherosclerosis are useful tools to investigate pathogenic pathways on a molecular level, but require standardized quantification of lesion development. This protocol describes an optimized method to determine lesion size in the major arterial vessels including the aortic root, aortic arch, and brachiocephalic...

induction of accelerated atherosclerosis in mice: the "wire-injury" model

Induction of Accelerated Atherosclerosis in Mice: The &quot;Wire-Injury&quot; Model

This study describes an invasive procedure for the induction of accelerated atherosclerosis in mice. In comparison to other methods using electric- or cryo-induced injury, mechanical-induced injury mimics the human condition of restenosis after revascularization therapies and is ideal for the study of the molecular mechanisms involved.

Induction of Accelerated Atherosclerosis in Mice: The "Wire-Injury" Model

implantation of a carotid cuff for triggering shear-stress induced atherosclerosis in mice

Implantation of a Carotid Cuff for Triggering Shear-stress Induced Atherosclerosis in Mice

The constricting cuff presented in this article is designed to induce atherosclerosis in the murine common carotid artery. Due to the conical shape of its inner lumen the implanted cuff generates well-defined regions of low, high and oscillatory shear stress triggering the development of atherosclerotic lesions of different inflammatory...

minimal invasive surgical procedure of inducing myocardial infarction in mice

Minimal Invasive Surgical Procedure of Inducing Myocardial Infarction in Mice

A highly reproducible model for myocardial infarction in mice with minimal invasive manipulations is described. The model can be easily performed, resulting in a high reproducibility and survival rate. Thus, the described model will reduce the number of required animals as requested by the 3R principle (Replacement, Refinement and...

inducing apical periodontitis in mice

Inducing Apical Periodontitis in Mice

Here, we present a protocol to locally induce apical periodontitis in mice. We show how to drill a hole in the mouse&#39;s tooth and expose its pulp, in order to cause local inflammation. Analysis methods to investigate the nature of this inflammation, such as micro-CT and histology, are also...

induction of intestinal graft-versus-host disease and its mini-endoscopic assessment in live mice

Induction of Intestinal Graft-versus-host Disease and Its Mini-endoscopic Assessment in Live Mice

Here, we present a protocol that describes allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation and allows repetitive mini-endoscopic evaluations of the distal colon in situ for the presence, characteristics, and severity of colonic inflammation within live mice suffering from intestinal graft-versus-host...

induction of graft versus host disease in mouse models via allogeneic bone marrow and splenic cell transplantation

This video demonstrates the induction of intestinal graft-versus-host disease, GvHD, in a lethally-irradiated recipient mouse using allogeneic hematopoietic stem cells and GvHD-inducing splenic alloreactive T lymphocytes. This protocol helps establish a severe acute intestinal GvHD model to understand the mechanism of the disease and develop innovative therapeutic...

Induction of Graft Versus Host Disease in Mouse Models via Allogeneic Bone Marrow and Splenic Cell Transplantation

three-dimensional imaging of aortic tissues in atherosclerosis

Author Spotlight: Advanced Imaging Techniques for Investigating Nervous System Interactions in Atherosclerosis Progression

Here, we present optimized tissue-clearing protocols to image the murine aorta in three dimensions (3D). We delineate state-of-the-art procedures for immunostaining, optical clearing, and imaging with the intent to define the anatomical proximity of the peripheral nervous system with atherosclerotic plaques and the adventitia in...

Three-Dimensional Imaging of Aortic Tissues in Atherosclerosis

modified fear conditioning for inducing flight behaviors in mice

Author Spotlight: Exploring Neural Correlates of Defensive Behaviors in Fear Learning and Extinction

To study flight behaviors in a fearful context, we introduce a modified fear conditioning protocol. This protocol ensures that mice consistently exhibit flight behaviors during cue presentation in the fear...

Modified Fear Conditioning for Inducing Flight Behaviors in Mice

aggravation of myocardial ischemia upon particulate matter exposure in atherosclerosis animal model

Aggravation of Myocardial Ischemia upon Particulate Matter Exposure in Atherosclerosis Animal Model

This protocol describes a composite animal model with exposure to particulate matter (PM) that aggravates myocardial ischemia with...

a revised method for inducing secondary lymphedema in the hindlimb of mice

A Revised Method for Inducing Secondary Lymphedema in the Hindlimb of Mice

This animal model enables researchers to induce statistically significant secondary lymphedema in the hindlimb of mice, lasting at least 8 weeks. The model can be used to study the pathophysiology of lymphedema and to investigate novel treatment...

quantitative mri of endothelial permeability and (dys)function in atherosclerosis

Quantitative MRI of Endothelial Permeability and Dysfunction in Atherosclerosis

We have developed an accurate, non-invasive, and easy-to-use method to quantify endothelial permeability and dysfunction in the arteries using Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), named qMETRIC. This technique enables assessing vascular damage and cardiovascular risk associated with atherosclerosis in preclinical models and...

Quantitative MRI of Endothelial Permeability and (Dys)function in Atherosclerosis

a modified technique for inducing polycystic ovary syndrome in mice

Author Spotlight: Investigating the Mechanisms and Inducing Models of Polycystic Ovary Syndrome

This protocol introduces a technique for inducing polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) models in mice through controlled letrozole release using mini-pumps. Under adequate anesthesia, the mini-pump was implanted subcutaneously, and PCOS was successfully induced in the mice after a certain period of the mini-pump...

A Modified Technique for Inducing Polycystic Ovary Syndrome in Mice

inducing acute lung injury in mice by direct intratracheal lipopolysaccharide instillation

Inducing Acute Lung Injury in Mice by Direct Intratracheal Lipopolysaccharide Instillation

Presented here is a step-by-step procedure to induce acute lung injury in mice by direct intratracheal lipopolysaccharide instillation and to perform FACS analysis of blood samples, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, and lung tissue. Minimal invasiveness, simple handling, good reproducibility, and titration of disease severity are advantages of this...

inducing meningococcal meningitis serogroup c in mice via intracisternal delivery

Inducing Meningococcal Meningitis Serogroup C in Mice via Intracisternal Delivery

Here, we describe a method to induce meningococcal meningitis through an intracisternal route of infection in adult mice. We present a step by step protocol of meningococcal infection from the preparation of inoculum to the intracisternal infection; then record the animal survival and evaluate the bacterial loads in murine...

Using hardened 8.5-centimeters fine scissors with straight tips, incise the skin between the forceps and one heel, elongating the incision cranially to facilitate removal of the skin and fur from the hind limbs. When the skin has been removed from the hind limbs, cut through each hip, ankle, and knee...

inducing hyperlipidemia to characterize diastolic dysfunction in hfpef mice

Inducing Hyperlipidemia to Characterize Diastolic Dysfunction in HFpEF Mice

It is widely accepted that alterations in vascular shear stress trigger the expression of inflammatory genes in endothelial cells and thereby induce atherosclerosis (reviewed in 1 and 2). The role of shear stress has been extensively studied in vitro investigating the influence of flow dynamics on cultured endothelial cells 1,3,4 and in vivo in larger animals and humans 1,5,6,7,8. However, highly reproducible small animal models allowing systematic investigation of the influence of shear stress on plaque development are rare. Recently, Nam et al. 9 introduced a mouse model in which the ligation of branches of the carotid artery creates a region of low and oscillatory flow. Although this model causes endothelial dysfunction and rapid formation of atherosclerotic lesions in hyperlipidemic mice, it cannot be excluded that the observed inflammatory response is, at least in part, a consequence of endothelial and/or vessel damage due to ligation.
In order to avoid such limitations, a shear stress modifying cuff has been developed based upon calculated fluid dynamics, whose cone shaped inner lumen was selected to create defined regions of low, high and oscillatory shear stress within the common carotid artery 10. By applying this model in Apolipoprotein E (ApoE) knockout mice fed a high cholesterol western type diet, vascular lesions develop upstream and downstream from the cuff. Their phenotype is correlated with the regional flow dynamics 11 as confirmed by in vivo Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) 12: Low and laminar shear stress upstream of the cuff causes the formation of extensive plaques of a more vulnerable phenotype, whereas oscillatory shear stress downstream of the cuff induces stable atherosclerotic lesions 11. In those regions of high shear stress and high laminar flow within the cuff, typically no atherosclerotic plaques are observed.
 
In conclusion, the shear stress-modifying cuff procedure is a reliable surgical approach to produce phenotypically different atherosclerotic lesions in ApoE-deficient mice.

The constricting cuff presented in this article is designed to induce atherosclerosis in the murine common carotid artery. Due to the conical shape of its inner lumen the implanted cuff generates well-defined regions of low, high and oscillatory shear stress triggering the development of atherosclerotic lesions of different inflammatory phenotypes.

It is widely accepted that alterations in vascular shear stress trigger the expression of inflammatory genes in endothelial cells and thereby induce ...

Quantitative Analysis and Characterization of Atherosclerotic Lesions in the Murine Aortic Sinus

Atherosclerosis is a disease of the large arteries and a major underlying cause of myocardial infarction and stroke. Several different mouse models have been developed to facilitate the study of the molecular and cellular pathophysiology of this disease. In this manuscript we describe specific techniques for the quantification and characterization of atherosclerotic lesions in the murine aortic sinus and ascending aorta. The advantage of this procedure is that it provides an accurate measurement of the cross-sectional area and total volume of the lesion, which can be used to compare atherosclerotic progression across different treatment groups. This is possible through the use of the valve leaflets as an anatomical landmark, together with careful adjustment of the sectioning angle. We also describe basic staining methods that can be used to begin to characterize atherosclerotic progression. These can be further modified to investigate antigens of specific interest to the researcher. The described techniques are generally applicable to a wide variety of existing and newly created dietary and genetically-induced models of atherogenesis.

We describe procedures to quantify and characterize atherosclerotic lesions in mouse models using precision sectioning of the aortic sinus and ascending aorta combined with histochemical and immunohistochemical analysis.

Atherosclerosis is a disease of the large arteries and a major underlying cause of myocardial infarction and stroke. Several different mouse models have ...

Acute Brain Trauma in Mice Followed By Longitudinal Two-photon Imaging

Although acute brain trauma often results from head damage in different accidents and affects a substantial fraction of the population, there is no effective treatment for it yet. Limitations of currently used animal models impede understanding of the pathology mechanism. Multiphoton microscopy allows studying cells and tissues within intact animal brains longitudinally under physiological and pathological conditions. Here, we describe two models of acute brain injury studied by means of two-photon imaging of brain cell behavior under posttraumatic conditions. A selected brain region is injured with a sharp needle to produce a trauma of a controlled width and depth in the brain parenchyma. Our method uses stereotaxic prick with a syringe needle, which can be combined with simultaneous drug application. We propose that this method can be used as an advanced tool to study cellular mechanisms of pathophysiological consequences of acute trauma in mammalian brain in vivo. In this video, we combine acute brain injury with two preparations: cranial window and skull thinning. We also discuss advantages and limitations of both preparations for multisession imaging of brain regeneration after trauma.

Acute brain trauma is a severe injury that has no adequate treatment to date. Multiphoton microscopy allows studying longitudinally the process of acute brain trauma development and probing therapeutical strategies in rodents. Two models of acute brain trauma studied with in vivo two-photon imaging of brain are demonstrated in this protocol.

Although acute brain trauma often results from head damage in different accidents and affects a substantial fraction of the population, there is no ...

Myocardial infarction still remains the main cause of death in western countries, despite considerable progress in the stent development area in the last decades. For clarification of the underlying mechanisms and the development of new therapeutic strategies, the availability of valid animal models are mandatory. Since we need new insights into pathomechanisms of cardiovascular diseases under in vivo conditions to combat myocardial infarction, the validity of the animal model is a crucial aspect. However, protection of animals are highly relevant in this context. Therefore, we establish a minimally invasive and simple model of myocardial infarction in mice, which assures a high reproducibility and survival rate of animals. Thus, this models fulfils the requirements of the 3R principle (Replacement, Refinement and Reduction) for animal experiments and assure the scientific information needed for further developing of therapeutical strategies for cardiovascular diseases.

A highly reproducible model for myocardial infarction in mice with minimal invasive manipulations is described. The model can be easily performed, resulting in a high reproducibility and survival rate. Thus, the described model will reduce the number of required animals as requested by the 3R principle (Replacement, Refinement and Reduction).

Myocardial infarction still remains the main cause of death in western countries, despite considerable progress in the stent development area in the last ...

Surgical Models of Gastroesophageal Reflux with Mice

Multiple surgical procedures have been reported to induce gastroesophageal reflux in animals. Herein, we report three surgical models with mice aiming to induce reflux of gastric contents, duodenal contents or mixed contents. Surgical procedures and general principles have been described in detail. A researcher with surgical experience should be able to grasp the technique after a short period of practice. After surgery, most mice can survive and develop reflux esophagitis similar to that in humans. However, it should be noted that histological differences between mouse and human esophagus are the inherent limitations of these surgical models. If used for research on Barrett&#8217;s esophagus and adenocarcinoma, these procedures may need to be combined with genetic modifications.

This article demonstrates surgical procedures of gastroesophageal reflux with mice. These models are useful tools for research on mechanisms and treatment of gastroesophageal reflux disease and potentially Barrett&#8217;s esophagus and esophageal adenocarcinoma.

Multiple surgical procedures have been reported to induce gastroesophageal reflux in animals. Herein, we report three surgical models with mice aiming to ...

An Improved Method for Rapid Intubation of the Trachea in Mice

Despite some anatomical and physiological differences, mouse models continue to be an essential tool for studying human lung disease. Bleomycin toxicity is a commonly used model to study both acute lung injury and fibrosis, and multiple methods have been developed for administering bleomycin (and other toxic agents) into the lungs. However, many of these approaches, such as transtracheal instillation, have inherent drawbacks, including the need for strong anesthetics and survival surgery. This paper reports a quick, reproducible method of intratracheal intubation that involves mild inhaled anesthesia, visualization of the trachea, and the use of a surrogate spirometer to confirm exposure. As a proof of concept, 8-12 week old C57BL/6 mice were administered either 2.0 U/kg of bleomycin or an equivalent volume of PBS, and both damage and fibrotic endpoints were measured post-exposure. This procedure allows researchers to treat a large cohort of mice in a relatively short period with little expense and minimal post-procedure care.

This article presents a rapid and simple method for administering bleomycin directly into the mouse trachea via intubation. Key advantages of this method are that it is highly reproducible, easy to master, and does not require specialized equipment or lengthy recovery times.

Despite some anatomical and physiological differences, mouse models continue to be an essential tool for studying human lung disease. Bleomycin toxicity ...

Glaucoma-inducing Procedure in an In Vivo Rat Model and Whole-mount Retina Preparation

Glaucoma is a disease of the central nervous system affecting retinal ganglion cells (RGCs). RGC axons making up the optic nerve carry visual input to the brain for visual perception. Damage to RGCs and their axons leads to vision loss and/or blindness. Although the specific cause of glaucoma is unknown, the primary risk factor for the disease is an elevated intraocular pressure. Glaucoma-inducing procedures in animal models are a valuable tool to researchers studying the mechanism of RGC death. Such information can lead to the development of effective neuroprotective treatments that could aid in the prevention of vision loss. The protocol in this paper describes a method of inducing glaucoma - like conditions in an in vivo rat model where 50 &#181;l of 2 M hypertonic saline is injected into the episcleral venous plexus. Blanching of the vessels indicates successful injection. This procedure causes loss of RGCs to simulate glaucoma. One month following injection, animals are sacrificed and eyes are removed. Next, the cornea, lens, and vitreous are removed to make an eyecup. The retina is then peeled from the back of the eye and pinned onto sylgard dishes using cactus needles. At this point, neurons in the retina can be stained for analysis. Results from this lab show that approximately 25% of RGCs are lost within one month of the procedure when compared to internal controls. This procedure allows for quantitative analysis of retinal ganglion cell death in an in vivo rat glaucoma model.

Glaucoma-inducing Procedure in an In Vivo Rat Model and Whole-mount Retina Preparation

Glaucoma is characterized by damage to retinal ganglion cells. Inducing glaucoma in animal models can provide insight into the study of this disease. Here, we outline a procedure that induces loss of RGCs in an in vivo rat model and demonstrates the preparation of whole-mount retinas for analysis.

Glaucoma is a disease of the central nervous system affecting retinal ganglion cells (RGCs). RGC axons making up the optic nerve carry visual input to the ...

Atherosclerosis is a proliferative fibro-inflammatory disease developing in the arterial wall, inducing a deficient blood flow or a lack of blood flow. Moreover, by rupture of the defective vascular wall, atherosclerosis induces occlusive thrombus formation, which represents the main cause of myocardial infarction or stroke and the most frequent cause of death. Despite the advances in the cardiovascular field, many questions remain unanswered, and additional basic research is essential to improve our understanding of the molecular mechanisms during atherosclerosis and its effects. Due to limited clinical studies, there is a need for representative animal models recreating atherosclerotic conditions such as neointima formation after stent implantation, balloon angioplasty, or endarterectomy. Since the mouse presents many advantages and is the most frequently used model for studying molecular processes, the current study proposes an invasive procedure of endothelial denudation, also known as the wire-injury model, which is representative of the human condition of neointima formation in arteries after revascularization procedures.

This study describes an invasive procedure for the induction of accelerated atherosclerosis in mice. In comparison to other methods using electric- or cryo-induced injury, mechanical-induced injury mimics the human condition of restenosis after revascularization therapies and is ideal for the study of the molecular mechanisms involved.

Atherosclerosis is a proliferative fibro-inflammatory disease developing in the arterial wall, inducing a deficient blood flow or a lack of blood flow. ...

The use of animal models is essential for a better understanding of MH, one major cause for arterial stenosis.In this article, we demonstrate a murine balloon denudation model, which is comparable with established vessel injury models in large animals. The aorta denudation model with balloon catheters mimics the clinical setting and leads to comparable pathobiological and physiological changes. Briefly, after performing a horizontal incision in the aorta abdominalis, a balloon catheter will be inserted into the vessel, inflated, and introduced retrogradely. Inflation of the balloon will lead to intima injury and overdistension of the vessel. After removing the catheter, the aortic incision will be closed with single stiches. The model shown in this article is reproducible, easy to perform, and can be established quickly and reliably. It is especially suitable for evaluating expensive experimental therapeutic agents, which can be applied in an economical fashion. By using different knockout-mouse strains, the impact of different genes on MH development can be assessed.

This article demonstrates a murine model to study the development of myointimal hyperplasia (MH) after aortic balloon injury.

The use of animal models is essential for a better understanding of MH, one major cause for arterial stenosis.In this article, we demonstrate a murine ...

Airway administration of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is a common way to study pulmonary inflammation and acute lung injury (ALI) in small animal models. Various approaches have been described, such as the inhalation of aerosolized LPS as well as nasal or intratracheal instillation. The presented protocol describes a detailed step-by-step procedure to induce ALI in mice by direct intratracheal LPS instillation and perform FACS analysis of blood samples, bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid, and lung tissue. After intraperitoneal sedation, the trachea is exposed and LPS is administered via a 22 G venous catheter. A robust and reproducible inflammatory reaction with leukocyte invasion, upregulation of proinflammatory cytokines, and disruption of the alveolo-capillary barrier is induced within hours to days, depending on the LPS dosage used. Collection of blood samples, BAL fluid, and lung harvesting, as well as the processing for FACS analysis, are described in detail in the protocol. Although the use of the sterile LPS is not suitable to study pharmacologic interventions in infectious diseases, the described approach offers minimal invasiveness, simple handling, and good reproducibility to answer mechanistic immunological questions. Furthermore, dose titration as well as the use of alternative LPS preparations or mouse strains allow modulation of the clinical effects, which can exhibit different degrees of ALI severity or early vs. late onset of disease symptoms.

Presented here is a step-by-step procedure to induce acute lung injury in mice by direct intratracheal lipopolysaccharide instillation and to perform FACS analysis of blood samples, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, and lung tissue. Minimal invasiveness, simple handling, good reproducibility, and titration of disease severity are advantages of this approach.

Airway administration of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is a common way to study pulmonary inflammation and acute lung injury (ALI) in small animal models. ...