Name: activating autophagy by aerobic exercise in mice
Uploaded: 2017-02-03T14:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Activating Autophagy by Aerobic Exercise in Mice at JoVE.com

We thank the Northwestern University Mouse Histology and Phenotyping Laboratoryfor technical support and assistance, and Noboru Mizushima (University of Tokyo) for providing GFP-LC3 transgenic mice. A. R. and C. H. were supported by the startup funds from Northwestern University and the grant from National Institutes of Health (DK094980).

All procedures involving animals were performed according to guidelines approved by the Northwestern University Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC).
1. Mouse Models
<ol>
	<li>Use 8-12 week-old mice in the exercise training. To detect exercised-induced autophagy in vivo, use the GFP-LC3 transgenic mice (C57BL/6 background) for imaging studies and C57BL/6 mice for biochemical analyses.</li>
</ol>
2. Exercise-induced Autophagy
<ol>
	<li>Treadmill setup - fo...

<ol>
	<li>Mizushima, N., Yamamoto, A., Matsui, M., Yoshimori, T., Ohsumi, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+vivo+analysis+of+autophagy+in+response+to+nutrient+starvation+using+transgenic+mice+expressing+a+fluorescent+autophagosome+marker.">In vivo analysis of autophagy in response to nutrient starvation using transgenic mice expressing a fluorescent autophagosome marker.</a> Mol Biol Cell. 15, 1101-1111 (2004).</li><li>Tracy, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=BNIP3+is+an+RB/E2F+target+gene+required+for+hypoxia-induced+autophagy.">BNIP3 is an RB/E2F target gene required for hypoxia-induced autophagy.</a> Molecular and cellular biology. 27, 6229-6242 (2007).</li><li>Mizushima, N., Komatsu, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Autophagy:+renovation+of+cells+and+tissues.">Autophagy: renovation of cells and tissues.</a> Cell. 147, 728-741 (2011).</li><li>Nikoletopoulou, V., Papandreou, M. E., Tavernarakis, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Autophagy+in+the+physiology+and+pathology+of+the+central+nervous+system.">Autophagy in the physiology and pathology of the central nervous system.</a> Cell Death Differ. 22, 398-407 (2015).</li><li>Rocchi, A., He, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Emerging+roles+of+autophagy+in+metabolism+and+metabolic+disorders.">Emerging roles of autophagy in metabolism and metabolic disorders.</a> Frontiers in biology. 10, 154-164 (2015).</li><li>Mathew, R., Karantza-Wadsworth, V., White, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Role+of+autophagy+in+cancer.">Role of autophagy in cancer.</a> Nature reviews. Cancer. 7, 961-967 (2007).</li><li>He, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Exercise-induced+BCL2-regulated+autophagy+is+required+for+muscle+glucose+homeostasis.">Exercise-induced BCL2-regulated autophagy is required for muscle glucose homeostasis.</a> Nature. 481, 511-515 (2012).</li><li>He, C., Sumpter, R. J., Levine, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Exercise+induces+autophagy+in+peripheral+tissues+and+in+the+brain.">Exercise induces autophagy in peripheral tissues and in the brain.</a> Autophagy. 8, 4 (2012).</li><li>Kuramoto, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Autophagy+activation+by+novel+inducers+prevents+BECN2-mediated+drug+tolerance+to+cannabinoids.">Autophagy activation by novel inducers prevents BECN2-mediated drug tolerance to cannabinoids.</a> Autophagy. 12, 1460-1471 (2016).</li><li>Dougherty, J. P., Springer, D. A., Gershengorn, M. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Treadmill+Fatigue+Test:+A+Simple,+High-throughput+Assay+of+Fatigue-like+Behavior+for+the+Mouse.">The Treadmill Fatigue Test: A Simple, High-throughput Assay of Fatigue-like Behavior for the Mouse.</a> JoVE. , (2016).</li><li>Navone, S. E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Isolation+and+expansion+of+human+and+mouse+brain+microvascular+endothelial+cells.">Isolation and expansion of human and mouse brain microvascular endothelial cells.</a> Nature protocols. 8, 1680-1693 (2013).</li><li>Liu, L., Cheung, T. H., Charville, G. W., Rando, T. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Isolation+of+skeletal+muscle+stem+cells+by+fluorescence-activated+cell+sorting.">Isolation of skeletal muscle stem cells by fluorescence-activated cell sorting.</a> Nature protocols. 10, 1612-1624 (2015).</li><li>Eslami, A., Lujan, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Western+blotting:+sample+preparation+to+detection.">Western blotting: sample preparation to detection.</a> Journal of visualized experiments : JoVE. , (2010).</li><li>Bj&#248;rk&#248;y, G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chapter+12+Monitoring+Autophagic+Degradation+of+p62/SQSTM1.">Chapter 12 Monitoring Autophagic Degradation of p62/SQSTM1.</a> Methods Enzymol. 452, 181-197 (2009).</li><li>Klionsky, D. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Guidelines+for+the+use+and+interpretation+of+assays+for+monitoring+autophagy+(3rd+edition).">Guidelines for the use and interpretation of assays for monitoring autophagy (3rd edition).</a> Autophagy. 12, 1-222 (2016).</li><li>Levine, B., Kroemer, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Autophagy+in+the+Pathogenesis+of+Disease.">Autophagy in the Pathogenesis of Disease.</a> Cell. 132, 27-42 (2008).</li><li>Mizushima, N., Levine, B., Cuervo, A. M., Klionsky, D. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Autophagy+fights+disease+through+cellular+self-digestion.">Autophagy fights disease through cellular self-digestion.</a> Nature. 451, 1069-1075 (2008).</li><li>Fang, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Duration+of+rapamycin+treatment+has+differential+effects+on+metabolism+in+mice.">Duration of rapamycin treatment has differential effects on metabolism in mice.</a> Cell Metab. 17, 456-462 (2013).</li><li>Thomson, A. W., Turnquist, H. R., Raimondi, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Immunoregulatory+functions+of+mTOR+inhibition.">Immunoregulatory functions of mTOR inhibition.</a> Nature reviews. Immunology. 9, 324-337 (2009).</li><li>Miller, R. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rapamycin-mediated+lifespan+increase+in+mice+is+dose+and+sex+dependent+and+metabolically+distinct+from+dietary+restriction.">Rapamycin-mediated lifespan increase in mice is dose and sex dependent and metabolically distinct from dietary restriction.</a> Aging Cell. 13, 10 (2014).</li><li>Grumati, P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Physical+exercise+stimulates+autophagy+in+normal+skeletal+muscles+but+is+detrimental+for+collagen+VI-deficient+muscles.">Physical exercise stimulates autophagy in normal skeletal muscles but is detrimental for collagen VI-deficient muscles.</a> Autophagy. 7, 1415-1423 (2011).</li><li>Lira, V. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Autophagy+is+required+for+exercise+training-induced+skeletal+muscle+adaptation+and+improvement+of+physical+performance.">Autophagy is required for exercise training-induced skeletal muscle adaptation and improvement of physical performance.</a> FASEB journal : official publication of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology. 27, 4184-4193 (2013).</li><li>Lo Verso, F., Carnio, S., Vainshtein, A., Sandri, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Autophagy+is+not+required+to+sustain+exercise+and+PRKAA1/AMPK+activity+but+is+important+to+prevent+mitochondrial+damage+during+physical+activity.">Autophagy is not required to sustain exercise and PRKAA1/AMPK activity but is important to prevent mitochondrial damage during physical activity.</a> Autophagy. 10, 1883-1894 (2014).</li><li>Kregel, K. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Resource+book+for+the+design+of+animal+exercise+protocols.">Resource book for the design of animal exercise protocols.</a> American Physiological Society. , 152 (2006).</li><li>Lightfoot, J. T., Turner, M. J., Debated, K. S., Kleeberg, S. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Interstrain+variation+in+murine+aerobic+capacity.">Interstrain variation in murine aerobic capacity.</a> Med Sci Sports Exerc. 33, 5 (2001).</li><li>Rezende, E. L., Chappell, M. A., Gomes, F. R., Malisch, J. L., Garland, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Maximal+metabolic+rates+during+voluntary+exercise,+forced+exercise,+and+cold+exposure+in+house+mice+selectively+bred+for+high+wheel-running.">Maximal metabolic rates during voluntary exercise, forced exercise, and cold exposure in house mice selectively bred for high wheel-running.</a> The Journal of experimental biology. 208, 2447-2458 (2005).</li><li>Kayatekin, B. M., Gonenc, S., Acikgoz, O., Uysal, N., Dayi, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effects+of+sprint+exercise+on+oxidative+stress+in+skeletal+muscle+and+liver.">Effects of sprint exercise on oxidative stress in skeletal muscle and liver.</a> European journal of applied physiology. 87, 141-144 (2002).</li><li>Kawanaka, K., Tabata, I., Tanaka, A., Higuchi, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effects+of+high-intensity+intermittent+swimming+on+glucose+transport+in+rat+epitrochlearis+muscle.">Effects of high-intensity intermittent swimming on glucose transport in rat epitrochlearis muscle.</a> J Appl Physiol. 84, 4 (1998).</li><li>Fernando, P., Bonen, A., Hoffman-Goetz, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Predicting+submaximal+oxygen+consumption+during+treadmill+running+in+mice.">Predicting submaximal oxygen consumption during treadmill running in mice.</a> Can J Physiol Pharmacol. 71, 4 (1993).</li></ol>

Autophagy is a catabolic process that provides energy and reduces cytotoxicity by lysosomal degradation of cytoplasm components or damaged organelles. Studying autophagy is important to understand the regulation of cellular homeostasis and the mechanisms of stress response. New models and methodologies are emerging in the research field15, to study how impaired autophagy contributes to numerous pathological processes16,17.
<p class="jo...

Autophagy is an evolutionarily conserved degradation pathway, which is induced in response to various stress conditions such as starvation and hypoxia1,2. During autophagy, double-membrane vesicles, called autophagosomes, incorporate unnecessary or damaged subcellular components and transport them into lysosomes for degradation3. Basal autophagy is essential for cellular function and organism development, and impaired basal autophagy is implicated in many disorders, including neurodegeneration, tumorigenesis and type 2 diabetes4,5,6.
The best-known physiological autophagy inducer is starvation. However, it has two major limitations. First, starvation takes a long period to effectively induce autophagy in animals, e.g., 48 hr of food restriction in mice in most organs. Second, starvation barely induces brain autophagy, due to a relatively stable nutrient supply in the brain. In fact, it is also difficult to detect autophagy induction by small-molecule inducers, as many drugs cannot pass the blood brain barrier. Thus, to better analyze the function of autophagy activation in disease pathogenesis, we recently discovered that exercise is a more potent physiological method to induce autophagy in a short period of time7,8,9. Compared with starvation, autophagy is effectively induced by treadmill running as fast as 30 min. Thus, exercise is a convenient and potent physiological approach to study the mechanism of autophagy in mediating health benefits and preventing diseases.
There are several protein markers for the detection of autophagy activity, including LC3 and p62. LC3 (microtubule-associated protein 1A/1B-light chain 3) is a cytosolic protein (LC3-I form) that is conjugated to PE (phosphatidylethanolamine) upon autophagy induction. PE-lipidated LC3 (LC3-II form) is recruited onto autophagosomal membranes and can be used to visualize autophagosomes when labeled with GFP. Its translocation from the cytosol to punctate structures of autophagosomes under microscopy is an indication of autophagy induction. p62 is a cargo receptor for autophagy substrates (such as ubiquitination proteins), and is incorporated into autophagosomes as well. Since the protein is degraded in lysosomes along with autophagosomes, its levels can be used to measure the autophagy flux. Here we show how to use these markers to quantify autophagy in different mouse tissues induced by aerobic exercise, including forced exercise (treadmill) and voluntary exercise (running wheels). The same procedures can also be applied to in vivo measurement of autophagy after treatment of other inducers.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="863">
	<colgroup>
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
	</colgroup>
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:247px;">Treadmill</td>
			<td style="width:204px;">Columbus Instruments</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">150-RM Exer 3/6</td>
			<td style="width:217px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:247px;">Mouse running wheel</td>
			<td style="width:204px;">Super Pet</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">100079365</td>
			<td>diameter 11.4 cm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:247px;">Odometer</td>
			<td style="width:204px;">Bell</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">DASHBOARD 100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:247px;">Syringe pump</td>
			<td style="width:204px;">KD Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">KDS100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:247px;">Fluorescence microscope</td>
			<td style="width:204px;">Nikon</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">Model: inverted microscope ECLIPSE</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:247px;">Cryostat</td>
			<td style="width:204px;">Leica</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">CM 1850UV</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:247px;">Homogenizer</td>
			<td style="width:204px;">IKA</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">003737001 / Model: T10 Basic S1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:247px;">Chloroquine</td>
			<td style="width:204px;">CAYMAN CHEMICAL COMPANY</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">14194</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:247px;">Parafolmaldehye</td>
			<td style="width:204px;">SIGMA-ALDRICH</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">P6148</td>
			<td>Personal protection equipment required. This product may release formaldehyde gas, a chemical known to cause cancer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:247px;">Mounting media</td>
			<td style="width:204px;">Vector Laboratories</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">H-1200</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:247px;">p62 antibody</td>
			<td style="width:204px;">BD Biosciences</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">610833</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:247px;">LC3 antibody</td>
			<td style="width:204px;">Novus Biologicals</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">NB100-2220</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">2X Laemmli Sample Buffer</td>
			<td style="width:204px;">Bio-Rad Laboratories</td>
			<td style="width:195px;">161-0737</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:247px;">ImageJ</td>
			<td style="width:204px;">NIH</td>
			<td style="width:195px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

activating autophagy by aerobic exercise in mice

Autophagy is a lysosomal degradation pathway essential for cell homeostasis, function and differentiation. Under stress conditions, autophagy is induced and targets various cargos, such as bulk cytosol, damaged organelles and misfolded proteins, for degradation in lysosomes. Resulting nutrient molecules are recycled back to the cytosol for new protein synthesis and ATP production. Upregulation of autophagy has beneficial effects against the pathogenesis of many diseases, and pharmacological and physiological strategies to activate autophagy have been reported. Aerobic exercise is recently identified as an efficient autophagy inducer in multiple organs in mice, including muscle, liver, heart and brain. Here we show procedures to induce autophagy in vivo by either forced treadmill exercise or voluntary wheel running. We also demonstrate microscopic and biochemical methods to quantitatively analyze autophagy levels in mouse tissues, using the marker proteins LC3 and p62 that are transported to and degraded in lysosomes along with autophagosomes.

This protocol describes two different methods to induce autophagy in mouse tissues by aerobic exercise: a total of 90 min of forced exercise on a multi-lane treadmill proceeded by two days of acclimation; or two weeks of voluntary exercise on a running wheel used by single-housed mice. In each exercise protocol, we can measure the autophagy flux by fluorescence microscopy and western blot analysis in various organs.
We used a tr...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Activating Autophagy by Aerobic Exercise in Mice at JoVE.com

Activating Autophagy by Aerobic Exercise in Mice

Autophagy activation is beneficial in the prevention of a number of diseases. One of the physiological approaches to induce autophagy in vivo is physical exercise. Here we show how to activate autophagy by aerobic exercise and measure autophagy levels in mice.

Autophagy is a lysosomal degradation pathway essential for cell homeostasis, function and differentiation. Under stress conditions, autophagy is induced ...

The overall goal of this experiment is to physiologically activate autophagy in mice by forced or voluntary running, and then measure the levels of autophagy in specific tissues. This method can help answer key questions about autophagy, in particular, how autophagy and action contributes to the beneficial effects mediated by aerobic exercise. The main advantage of this technique is that physical exercise is a fast aerobic sway between autophagy in vivo using mice.For this experiment, start with eight to twelve week old C57 black six mice, harboring a trans gene to detect exercise induced autophagy in vivo, known as GFP-LC3. For details on the use of mice treadmills, see the following JoVE publication. Set the electrical stimulus of the treadmill to low intensity.On their first two sessions, acclimate the mice to a ten degree uphill open treadmill. On the first day, exercise the mice for five minutes with the treadmill running at eight meters per minute. On the second day, run the mice for ten minutes, initially at eight meters per minute, and after five minutes, ramp up the speed to ten meters per minute.On the third day, run the mice for a full 90 minutes. Start the treadmill at ten meters per minute and encourage the mice to run using gentle nudges to avoid repeated foot shocks. It is critical to observe and manipulate the mice so they don't receive too many electric shocks during the 90 minute run.Throughout the run, use your fingers to encourage the mice to stay on the treadmill. After 40 minutes, 6increase the speed by one meter per minute. After 50 minutes, increase the speed by one meter per minute again.After 60 minutes, increase the speed by another meter per minute. After 70 minutes, start increasing the speed every five minutes so that the last five minutes of the 90 minute run are 17 meters per minute. After the end of the trial, immediately euthanize the mice for tissue collection if desired.For this test, house the mice individually. Use the same strain as previously described. Prepare an 11.4 centimeter diameter mouse running wheel with an attached bike odometer.Each rotation should measure 358 millimeters of travel. Move the mouse into the cage containing the wheel and let the mouse use it freely for two weeks. Every 24 hours, record the distance run by the mouse from the odometer.After the two weeks, harvest tissues for analysis as needed. To measure the autophagic flux, treat the mice with the autophagy inhibitor, chloroquine, for three days. Dissolve the chloroquine in PBS at five milligrams per milliliter and inject it into mice intraperitoneally at the dose of 50 micrograms per gram.Give the mice one injection daily for three consecutive days and harvest tissues three hours after the last injection. For the treadmill exercised mice, start the 90 minute run 90 minutes after the injection on the third day so the run ends three hours after the injection. Then euthanize the mice and immediately harvest their tissues.Prepare to profuse an animal within 90 minutes of being exercised by preparing the fixative. Load a 30 milliliter syringe with 15 to 20 milliliters of freshly made four percent paraformaldehyde and connect the syringe with a 20 gauge catheter needle. Attach the loaded syringe pump and set it to 90 milliliters per hour of continuous flow.With the animal on a clean work surface, in a supine position, cut open the thoracic cavity through the diaphragm to expose the heart. Now, insert the catheter needle into the right ventricle. Next, make a small incision on the liver to drain the blood and start the pump.Inject the fixative until the lung and liver turn completely pale. Usually, 15 milliliters of fixative will suffice. After the profusion, remove the needle and collect tissues of interest.To collect skeletal muscle, dissect the vastus lateralis. Briefly pull the skin of the leg backwards to expose the muscles and localize the quadriceps femoris. Then, dissect out the vastus lateralis, which is the external muscle attached to the upper portion of the femoral bone.For further fixation and dehydration, place the harvested tissues in four percent paraformaldehyde for 24 hours at four degrees celsius. The next day, transfer the tissues to 15 percent sucrose PBS and let them soak at four degrees celsius overnight or until they have settled in the solution. Then, transfer the tissues to 30 percent sucrose PBS at four degrees celsius for overnight or longer.Keep the tissues in the dark as much as possible during these baths. Next, place the tissues in an embedding medium such as OCT and cut them into smaller pieces if necessary. Then, allow them to acclimate for a few minutes in a small petri dish.Afterwards, transfer them to cryomolds with enough OCT to cover. In the molds, orient the sectioning surfaces toward the bottom and avoid forming bubbles. Then, freeze the samples in a covered foam cooler filled with dry ice until the OCT turns white.Now, wrap individual samples in labeled foils, seal them in a plastic bag and store them at negative 80 degrees celsius until they can be processed. Using GFP tagged LC3 as a reporter system, autophagy induction was observed in mice exercised as described. After autophagy stimulation, LC3 translocated from the cytosol to the autophagosome in punctuate structures.Exercised mice had many more GFP-LC3 puncta in both skeletal muscle and the cerebral cortex compared to resting condition mice. Western blot analysis using an LC3 antibody showed that exercise significantly induced the generation of lipid conjugative LC3-II, suggesting that there was increased conversion of cytosolic LC3-I into LC3-II. Next, the degradation of the autophagic cargo receptor, p62, was measured.90 minutes of treadmill activity caused a higher degradation of p62 in skeletal muscle than the resting condition. This effect was rescued by an injection with chloroquine prior to exercise. As chloroquine is an inhibitor of lysosomal degradation, these data indicate that the observed phenomena is due to an elevated autophogagic flux rather than a block in autophagosome degradation.After its development, this technique had precursors in the field of autophagy to explore the effects on the mechanism of exercise in the degradation of metabolism and animal behaviors. While attempting this procedure, it's important to monitor the mice while they are running. Following this procedure, are the methods like electric microscopy.Animal microscopy can be performed in order to answer additional questions like exercise in select autophagy pathways, such as mitophagy and lipophagy.

activating-autophagy-by-aerobic-exercise-in-mice

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

Agar-Block Microcosms for Controlled Plant Tissue Decomposition by Aerobic Fungi

The two principal methods for studying fungal biodegradation of lignocellulosic plant tissues were developed for wood preservative testing (soil-block; agar-block). It is well-accepted that soil-block microcosms yield higher decay rates, fewer moisture issues, lower variability among studies, and higher thresholds of preservative toxicity. Soil-block testing is thus the more utilized technique and has been standardized by American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) (method D 1413-07). The soil-block design has drawbacks, however, using locally-variable soil sources and in limiting the control of nutrients external (exogenous) to the decaying tissues. These drawbacks have emerged as a problem in applying this method to other, increasingly popular research aims. These modern aims include degrading lignocellulosics for bioenergy research, testing bioremediation of co-metabolized toxics, evaluating oxidative mechanisms, and tracking translocated elements along hyphal networks. Soil-blocks do not lend enough control in these applications. A refined agar-block approach is necessary.
Here, we use the brown rot wood-degrading fungus Serpula lacrymans to degrade wood in agar-block microcosms, using deep Petri dishes with low-calcium agar. We test the role of exogenous gypsum on decay in a time-series, to demonstrate the utility and expected variability. Blocks from a single board rip (longitudinal cut) are conditioned, weighed, autoclaved, and introduced aseptically atop plastic mesh. Fungal inoculations are at each block face, with exogenous gypsum added at interfaces. Harvests are aseptic until the final destructive harvest. These microcosms are designed to avoid block contact with agar or Petri dish walls. Condensation is minimized during plate pours and during incubation. Finally, inoculum/gypsum/wood spacing is minimized but without allowing contact. These less technical aspects of agar-block design are also the most common causes of failure and the key source of variability among studies. Video publication is therefore useful in this case, and we demonstrate low-variability, high-quality results.

This video demonstrates a controlled environment approach to study degradation of lignocellulosic plant tissues by aerobic fungi. The ability to control nutrient sources and moisture is a key advantage of agar-block microcosms, but the approach often yields mixed success. We address critical pitfalls to yield reproducible, low-variability results.

The two principal methods for studying fungal biodegradation of lignocellulosic plant tissues were developed for wood preservative testing (soil-block; ...

Determining the Contribution of the Energy Systems During Exercise

One of the most important aspects of the metabolic demand is the relative contribution of the energy systems to the total energy required for a given physical activity. Although some sports are relatively easy to be reproduced in a laboratory (e.g., running and cycling), a number of sports are much more difficult to be reproduced and studied in controlled situations. This method presents how to assess the differential contribution of the energy systems in sports that are difficult to mimic in controlled laboratory conditions. The concepts shown here can be adapted to virtually any sport.
The following physiologic variables will be needed: rest oxygen consumption, exercise oxygen consumption, post-exercise oxygen consumption, rest plasma lactate concentration and post-exercise plasma peak lactate. To calculate the contribution of the aerobic metabolism, you will need the oxygen consumption at rest and during the exercise. By using the trapezoidal method, calculate the area under the curve of oxygen consumption during exercise, subtracting the area corresponding to the rest oxygen consumption. To calculate the contribution of the alactic anaerobic metabolism, the post-exercise oxygen consumption curve has to be adjusted to a mono or a bi-exponential model (chosen by the one that best fits). Then, use the terms of the fitted equation to calculate anaerobic alactic metabolism, as follows: ATP-CP metabolism = A1 (mL . s-1) x t1 (s). Finally, to calculate the contribution of the lactic anaerobic system, multiply peak plasma lactate by 3 and by the athlete&#x2019;s body mass (the result in mL is then converted to L and into kJ).
The method can be used for both continuous and intermittent exercise. This is a very interesting approach as it can be adapted to exercises and sports that are difficult to be mimicked in controlled environments. Also, this is the only available method capable of distinguishing the contribution of three different energy systems. Thus, the method allows the study of sports with great similarity to real situations, providing desirable ecological validity to the study.

This protocol allows researchers focused on exercise and sports sciences to determine the relative contribution of three different energy systems to the total energy expenditure during a large variety of exercises.

One of the most important aspects of the metabolic demand is the relative contribution of the energy systems to the total energy required for a given ...

Transient Expression of Proteins by Hydrodynamic Gene Delivery in Mice

Efficient expression of transgenes in vivo is of critical importance in studying gene function and developing treatments for diseases. Over the past years, hydrodynamic gene delivery (HGD) has emerged as a simple, fast, safe and effective method for delivering transgenes into rodents. This technique relies on the force generated by the rapid injection of a large volume of physiological solution to increase the permeability of cell membranes of perfused organs and thus deliver DNA into cells. One of the main advantages of HGD is the ability to introduce transgenes into mammalian cells using naked plasmid DNA (pDNA). Introducing an exogenous gene using a plasmid is minimally laborious, highly efficient and, contrary to viral carriers, remarkably safe. HGD was initially used to deliver genes into mice, it is now used to deliver a wide range of substances, including oligonucleotides, artificial chromosomes, RNA, proteins and small molecules into mice, rats and, to a limited degree, other animals. This protocol describes HGD in mice and focuses on three key aspects of the method that are critical to performing the procedure successfully: correct insertion of the needle into the vein, the volume of injection and the speed of delivery. Examples are given to show the application of this method to the transient expression of two genes that encode secreted, primate-specific proteins, apolipoprotein L-I (APOL-I) and haptoglobin-related protein (HPR).

In vivo transfection of naked DNA by hydrodynamic gene delivery introduces genes into the tissue of an animal with minimal inflammatory response. Sufficient amounts of gene product are generated such that gene function and regulation as well as protein structure and function can be analyzed.

Efficient expression of transgenes in vivo is of critical importance in studying gene function and developing treatments for diseases. Over the past ...

In Vivo 4-Dimensional Tracking of Hematopoietic Stem and Progenitor Cells in Adult Mouse Calvarial Bone Marrow

Through a delicate balance between quiescence and proliferation, self renewal and production of differentiated progeny, hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) maintain the turnover of all mature blood cell lineages. The coordination of the complex signals leading to specific HSC fates relies upon the interaction between HSCs and the intricate bone marrow microenvironment, which is still poorly understood[1-2].
We describe how by combining a newly developed specimen holder for stable animal positioning with multi-step confocal and two-photon in vivo imaging techniques, it is possible to obtain high-resolution 3D stacks containing HSPCs and their surrounding niches and to monitor them over time through multi-point time-lapse imaging. High definition imaging allows detecting ex vivo labeled hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) residing within the bone marrow. Moreover, multi-point time-lapse 3D imaging, obtained with faster acquisition settings, provides accurate information about HSPC movement and the reciprocal interactions between HSPCs and stroma cells.
Tracking of HSPCs in relation to GFP positive osteoblastic cells is shown as an exemplary application of this method. This technique can be utilized to track any appropriately labeled hematopoietic or stromal cell of interest within the mouse calvarium bone marrow space.

In Vivo 4-Dimensional Tracking of Hematopoietic Stem and Progenitor Cells in Adult Mouse Calvarial Bone Marrow

The nature of the interactions between hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) and bone marrow niches is poorly understood. Custom hardware modifications and a multi-step acquisition protocol allow the use of two-photon and confocal microscopy to image ex vivo labeled HSPCs homed within bone marrow areas, tracking interactions and movement.

Through a delicate balance between quiescence and proliferation, self renewal and production of differentiated progeny, hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) ...

Analysis of Autophagy in Penicillium chrysogenum by Using Starvation Pads in Combination With Fluorescence Microscopy

The study of cellular quality control systems has emerged as a highly dynamic and relevant field of contemporary research. It has become clear that cells possess several lines of defense against damage to biologically relevant molecules like nucleic acids, lipids and proteins. In addition to organelle dynamics (fusion/fission/motility/inheritance) and tightly controlled protease activity, the degradation of surplus, damaged or compromised organelles by autophagy (cellular &#8216;self-eating&#8217;) has received much attention from the scientific community. The regulation of autophagy is quite complex and depends on genetic and environmental factors, many of which have so far not been elucidated. Here a novel method is presented that allows the convenient study of autophagy in the filamentous fungus Penicillium chrysogenum. It is based on growth of the fungus on so-called &#8216;starvation pads&#8217; for stimulation of autophagy in a reproducible manner. Samples are directly assayed by microscopy and evaluated for autophagy induction / progress. The protocol presented here is not limited for use with P. chrysogenum and can be easily adapted for use in other filamentous fungi.

Analysis of Autophagy in Penicillium chrysogenum by Using Starvation Pads in Combination With Fluorescence Microscopy

A convenient and powerful method for studying autophagy in Penicillium chrysogenum by using starvation pads (mixtures of agarose and tap water in a microscope slide containing a central cavity) is presented here.

The study of cellular quality control systems has emerged as a highly dynamic and relevant field of contemporary research. It has become clear that cells ...

Fecal Glucocorticoid Analysis: Non-invasive Adrenal Monitoring in Equids

Adrenal activity can be assessed in the equine species by analysis of feces for corticosterone metabolites. During a potentially aversive situation, corticotrophin releasing hormone (CRH) is released from the hypothalamus in the brain. This stimulates the release of adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) from the pituitary gland, which in turn stimulates release of glucocorticoids from the adrenal gland. In horses the glucocorticoid corticosterone is responsible for several adaptations needed to support equine flight behaviour and subsequent removal from the aversive situation. Corticosterone metabolites can be detected in the feces of horses and assessment offers a non-invasive option to evaluate long term patterns of adrenal activity. Fecal assessment offers advantages over other techniques that monitor adrenal activity including blood plasma and saliva analysis. The non-invasive nature of the method avoids sampling stress which can confound results. It also allows the opportunity for repeated sampling over time and is ideal for studies in free ranging horses. This protocol describes the enzyme linked immunoassay (EIA) used to assess feces for corticosterone, in addition to the associated biochemical validation.

Adrenal activity can be assessed in the equine species by analysis of feces for corticosterone metabolites. The method offers a non-invasive option to assess long term patterns in both domestic and free ranging horses. This protocol describes the enzyme linked immunoassay involved and the associated biochemical validation.

Adrenal activity can be assessed in the equine species by analysis of feces for corticosterone metabolites. During a potentially aversive situation, ...

Study of Protein-protein Interactions in Autophagy Research

Protein-protein interactions are important for understanding cellular signaling cascades and identifying novel pathway components and protein dynamics. The majority of cellular activities require physical interactions between proteins. To analyze and map these interactions, various experimental techniques as well as bioinformatics tools were developed. Autophagy is a cellular recycling mechanism that allows the cells to cope with different stressors, including nutrient deprivation, chemicals, and hypoxia. In order to better understand autophagy-related signaling events and to discover novel factors that regulate protein complexes in autophagy, we performed protein-protein interaction screens. Validation of these screening results requires the use of immunofluorescence and immunoprecipitation techniques. In this system, specific autophagy-related protein-protein interactions that we discovered were tested in Neuro2A (N2A) and HEK293T cell lines. Details of the technical procedures used are explained in this visualized experiment paper.

Presented here are two antibody-based protein-protein interaction research techniques: immunofluorescence and immunoprecipitation. These techniques are suitable for studying physical interactions between proteins for the discovery of novel components of cellular signaling pathways and for understanding protein dynamics.

Protein-protein interactions are important for understanding cellular signaling cascades and identifying novel pathway components and protein dynamics. ...

In Situ Immunofluorescent Staining of Autophagy in Muscle Stem Cells

Increasing evidence points to autophagy as a crucial regulatory process to preserve tissue homeostasis. It is known that autophagy is involved in skeletal muscle development and regeneration, and the autophagic process has been described in several muscular pathologies and age-related muscle disorders. A recently described block of the autophagic process that correlates with the functional exhaustion of satellite cells during muscle repair supports the notion that active autophagy is coupled with productive muscle regeneration. These data uncover the crucial role of autophagy in satellite cell activation during muscle regeneration in both normal and pathological conditions, such as muscular dystrophies. Here, we provide a protocol to monitor the autophagic process in the adult Muscle Stem Cell (MuSC) compartment during muscle regenerative conditions. This protocol describes the setup methodology to perform in situ immunofluorescence imaging of LC3, an autophagy marker, and MyoD, a myogenic lineage marker, in muscle tissue sections from control and injured mice. The methodology reported allows for monitoring the autophagic process in one specific cell compartment, the MuSC compartment, which plays a central role in orchestrating muscle regeneration.

In Situ Immunofluorescent Staining of Autophagy in Muscle Stem Cells

Active autophagy is associated with productive muscle regeneration, which is essential for Muscle Stem Cell (MuSC) activation. Here, we provide a protocol for the in situ detection of LC3, an autophagy marker in MyoD-positive MuSCs of muscle tissue sections from control and injured mice.

Increasing evidence points to autophagy as a crucial regulatory process to preserve tissue homeostasis. It is known that autophagy is involved in skeletal ...

The Lactate Dehydrogenase Sequestration Assay &#8212; A Simple and Reliable Method to Determine Bulk Autophagic Sequestration Activity in Mammalian Cells

Bulk autophagy is characterized by the sequestration of large portions of cytoplasm into double/multi-membrane structures termed autophagosomes. Here a simple protocol to monitor this process is described. Moreover, typical results and experimental validation of the method under autophagy-inducing conditions in various types of cultured mammalian cells are provided. During bulk autophagy, autophagosomes sequester cytosol, and thereby also soluble cytosolic proteins, alongside other autophagic cargo. LDH is a stable and highly abundant, soluble cytosolic enzyme that is non-selectively sequestered into autophagosomes. The amount of LDH sequestration therefore reflects the amount of bulk autophagic sequestration. To efficiently and accurately determine LDH sequestration in cells, we employ an electrodisruption-based fractionation protocol that effectively separates sedimentable from cytosolic LDH, followed by measurement of enzymatic activity in sedimentable fractions versus whole-cell samples. Autophagic sequestration is determined by subtracting the proportion of sedimentable LDH in untreated cells from that in treated cells. The advantage of the LDH sequestration assay is that it gives a quantitative measure of the autophagic sequestration of endogenous cargo, as opposed to other methods that either involve ectopic expression of sequestration probes or semi-quantitative protease protection analyses of autophagy markers or receptors.

The Lactate Dehydrogenase Sequestration Assay &amp;#8212; A Simple and Reliable Method to Determine Bulk Autophagic Sequestration Activity in Mammalian Cells

Here a simple and well-validated protocol for measuring bulk autophagic sequestration activity in mammalian cells is described. The method is based on quantifying the proportion of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) in sedimentable cell fractions compared to total cellular LDH levels.

Bulk autophagy is characterized by the sequestration of large portions of cytoplasm into double/multi-membrane structures termed autophagosomes. Here a ...

Measurement of Insulin- and Contraction-Stimulated Glucose Uptake in Isolated and Incubated Mature Skeletal Muscle from Mice

Skeletal muscle is an insulin-responsive tissue and typically takes up most of the glucose that enters the blood after a meal. Moreover, it has been reported that skeletal muscle may increase the extraction of glucose from the blood by up to 50-fold during exercise compared to resting conditions. The increase in muscle glucose uptake during exercise and insulin stimulation is dependent on the translocation of glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4) from intracellular compartments to the muscle cell surface membrane, as well as phosphorylation of glucose to glucose-6-phosphate by hexokinase II. Isolation and incubation of mouse muscles such as m. soleus and m. extensor digitorum longus (EDL) is an appropriate ex vivo model to study the effects of insulin and electrically-induced contraction (a model for exercise) on glucose uptake in mature skeletal muscle. Thus, the ex vivo model permits evaluation of muscle insulin sensitivity and makes it possible to match muscle force production during contraction ensuring uniform recruitment of muscle fibers during measurements of muscle glucose uptake. Moreover, the described model is suitable for pharmacological compound testing that may have an impact on muscle insulin sensitivity or may be of help when trying to delineate the regulatory complexity of skeletal muscle glucose uptake.
Here we describe and provide a detailed protocol on how to measure insulin- and contraction-stimulated glucose uptake in isolated and incubated soleus and EDL muscle preparations from mice using radiolabeled [3H]2-deoxy-D-glucose and [14C]mannitol as an extracellular marker. This allows accurate assessment of glucose uptake in mature skeletal muscle in the absence of confounding factors that may interfere in the intact animal model. In addition, we provide information on metabolic viability of incubated mouse skeletal muscle suggesting that the method&#160;applied possesses some caveats under certain conditions when studying muscle energy metabolism.

Intact regulation of muscle glucose uptake is important for maintaining whole body glucose homeostasis. This protocol presents assessment of insulin- and contraction-stimulated glucose uptake in isolated and incubated mature skeletal muscle when delineating the impact of various physiological interventions on whole body glucose metabolism.

Skeletal muscle is an insulin-responsive tissue and typically takes up most of the glucose that enters the blood after a meal. Moreover, it has been ...