The project was supported by the German Jos&#233; Carreras Leukemia Foundation (DJCLS 14 R/2017).

All methods described here have been approved by the Ethics Committee II of the Medical Faculty Mannheim of the Heidelberg University. Written informed consent was obtained from all individuals.
1. Preparation of Materials
<ol>
	<li>Anticoagulant stock solution: Prepare an anticoagulant stock solution of 200 I.U. heparin per mL in 0.9% sodium chloride. Fill each of the collection tubes (draw volume 9 mL) with 2 mL of the anticoagulant stock solution before withdrawal of the ...

<ol>
	<li>Hoeijmakers, J. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genome+maintenance+mechanisms+for+preventing+cancer.">Genome maintenance mechanisms for preventing cancer.</a> Nature. 411 (6835), 366-374 (2001).</li><li>Lindahl, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Instability+and+decay+of+the+primary+structure+of+DNA.">Instability and decay of the primary structure of DNA.</a> Nature. 362 (6422), 709-715 (1993).</li><li>Zeman, M. K., Cimprich, K. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Causes+and+consequences+of+replication+stress.">Causes and consequences of replication stress.</a> Nat Cell Biol. 16 (1), 2-9 (2014).</li><li>. Biological effects of low doses of ionizing radiation: A fuller picture Available from: <a target="_blank" href="https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/36405843745.pdf">https://www.iaea.org/sites/default/files/36405843745.pdf</a> (1994)</li><li>Vilenchik, M. M., Knudson, A. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Endogenous+DNA+double-strand+breaks:+production,+fidelity+of+repair,+and+induction+of+cancer.">Endogenous DNA double-strand breaks: production, fidelity of repair, and induction of cancer.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 100 (22), 12871-12876 (2003).</li><li>Simsek, D., Jasin, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Alternative+end-joining+is+suppressed+by+the+canonical+NHEJ+component+Xrcc4-ligase+IV+during+chromosomal+translocation+formation.">Alternative end-joining is suppressed by the canonical NHEJ component Xrcc4-ligase IV during chromosomal translocation formation.</a> Nat Struct Mol Biol. 17 (4), 410-416 (2010).</li><li>Weinstock, D. M., Brunet, E., Jasin, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Formation+of+NHEJ-derived+reciprocal+chromosomal+translocations+does+not+require+Ku70.">Formation of NHEJ-derived reciprocal chromosomal translocations does not require Ku70.</a> Nat Cell Biol. 9 (8), 978-981 (2007).</li><li>Rogakou, E. P., Pilch, D. R., Orr, A. H., Ivanova, V. S., Bonner, W. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=DNA+double-stranded+breaks+induce+histone+H2AX+phosphorylation+on+serine+139.">DNA double-stranded breaks induce histone H2AX phosphorylation on serine 139.</a> J Biol Chem. 273 (10), 5858-5868 (1998).</li><li>Scully, R., Xie, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Double+strand+break+repair+functions+of+histone+H2AX.">Double strand break repair functions of histone H2AX.</a> Mutat Res. 750 (1-2), 5-14 (2013).</li><li>Walters, D. K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evidence+for+ongoing+DNA+damage+in+multiple+myeloma+cells+as+revealed+by+constitutive+phosphorylation+of+H2AX.">Evidence for ongoing DNA damage in multiple myeloma cells as revealed by constitutive phosphorylation of H2AX.</a> Leukemia. 25 (8), 1344-1353 (2011).</li><li>Yu, T., MacPhail, S. H., Banath, J. P., Klokov, D., Olive, P. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Endogenous+expression+of+phosphorylated+histone+H2AX+in+tumors+in+relation+to+DNA+double-strand+breaks+and+genomic+instability.">Endogenous expression of phosphorylated histone H2AX in tumors in relation to DNA double-strand breaks and genomic instability.</a> DNA Repair (Amst). 5 (8), 935-946 (2006).</li><li>Sedelnikova, O. A., Bonner, W. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=GammaH2AX+in+cancer+cells:+a+potential+biomarker+for+cancer+diagnostics,+prediction+and+recurrence.">GammaH2AX in cancer cells: a potential biomarker for cancer diagnostics, prediction and recurrence.</a> Cell Cycle. 5 (24), 2909-2913 (2006).</li><li>Chen, E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=JAK2V617F+promotes+replication+fork+stalling+with+disease-restricted+impairment+of+the+intra-S+checkpoint+response.">JAK2V617F promotes replication fork stalling with disease-restricted impairment of the intra-S checkpoint response.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 111 (42), 15190-15195 (2014).</li><li>Popp, H. D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Increase+of+DNA+damage+and+alteration+of+the+DNA+damage+response+in+myelodysplastic+syndromes+and+acute+myeloid+leukemias.">Increase of DNA damage and alteration of the DNA damage response in myelodysplastic syndromes and acute myeloid leukemias.</a> Leuk Res. 57, 112-118 (2017).</li><li>Panier, S., Boulton, S. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Double-strand+break+repair:+53BP1+comes+into+focus.">Double-strand break repair: 53BP1 comes into focus.</a> Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 15 (1), 7-18 (2014).</li><li>Escribano-Diaz, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+cell+cycle-dependent+regulatory+circuit+composed+of+53BP1-RIF1+and+BRCA1-CtIP+controls+DNA+repair+pathway+choice.">A cell cycle-dependent regulatory circuit composed of 53BP1-RIF1 and BRCA1-CtIP controls DNA repair pathway choice.</a> Mol Cell. 49 (5), 872-883 (2013).</li><li>Boyum, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Separation+of+White+Blood+Cells.">Separation of White Blood Cells.</a> Nature. 204, 793-794 (1964).</li><li>Boyum, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Isolation+of+mononuclear+cells+and+granulocytes+from+human+blood.+Isolation+of+monuclear+cells+by+one+centrifugation,+and+of+granulocytes+by+combining+centrifugation+and+sedimentation+at+1+g.">Isolation of mononuclear cells and granulocytes from human blood. Isolation of monuclear cells by one centrifugation, and of granulocytes by combining centrifugation and sedimentation at 1 g.</a> Scand J Clin Lab Invest Suppl. 97, 77-89 (1968).</li><li>Bain, B., Pshyk, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Enhanced+reactivity+in+mixed+leukocyte+cultures+after+separation+of+mononuclear+cells+on+Ficoll-Hypaque.">Enhanced reactivity in mixed leukocyte cultures after separation of mononuclear cells on Ficoll-Hypaque.</a> Transplant Proc. 4 (2), 163-164 (1972).</li><li>Popp, H. D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Leukocyte+DNA+damage+after+reduced+and+conventional+absorbed+radiation+doses+using+3rd+generation+dual-source+CT+technology.">Leukocyte DNA damage after reduced and conventional absorbed radiation doses using 3rd generation dual-source CT technology.</a> Eur J Radiol Open. 3, 134-137 (2016).</li><li>Rothkamm, K., Balroop, S., Shekhdar, J., Fernie, P., Goh, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Leukocyte+DNA+damage+after+multi-detector+row+CT:+a+quantitative+biomarker+of+low-level+radiation+exposure.">Leukocyte DNA damage after multi-detector row CT: a quantitative biomarker of low-level radiation exposure.</a> Radiology. 242 (1), 244-251 (2007).</li><li>Lobrich, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+vivo+formation+and+repair+of+DNA+double-strand+breaks+after+computed+tomography+examinations.">In vivo formation and repair of DNA double-strand breaks after computed tomography examinations.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 102 (25), 8984-8989 (2005).</li><li>Jamur, M. C., Oliver, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cell+fixatives+for+immunostaining.">Cell fixatives for immunostaining.</a> Methods Mol Biol. 588, 55-61 (2010).</li><li>Jamur, M. C., Oliver, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Permeabilization+of+cell+membranes.">Permeabilization of cell membranes.</a> Methods Mol Biol. 588, 63-66 (2010).</li><li>Rothkamm, K., Lobrich, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evidence+for+a+lack+of+DNA+double-strand+break+repair+in+human+cells+exposed+to+very+low+x-ray+doses.">Evidence for a lack of DNA double-strand break repair in human cells exposed to very low x-ray doses.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 100 (9), 5057-5062 (2003).</li></ol>

Immunofluorescence microscopy of &#947;H2AX and 53BP1 is a useful method for analyzing formation and repair of DSB in a broad spectrum of research areas. Critical parameters that influence the outcome of the experiments are the phase of the cell cycle, the agents used for the fixation and permeabilization of the cells, the choice of the antibodies, and the hardware and software of the fluorescence microscope.
The influence of the cell cycle on &#947;H2AX foci patterns was demonstrated by expon...

DNA is continuously damaged by endogenous (e.g., replication stress, reactive oxygen species, intrinsic instability of DNA) and exogenous (e.g., chemical radicals, irradiation) sources (Figure 1)1,2,3,4. Among DNA damage, DNA double-strand breaks (DSB) are particularly serious lesions and may induce cell death or carcinogenesis. About 50 DSB may arise per cell and cell cycle5. In mammalian cells, homologous recombination (HR) and nonhomologous end-joining (NHEJ) developed as major pathways for the repair of DSB (Figure 2). HR occurs in late S/G2 phase and uses an intact sister chromatid as a template for potentially error-free repair. In comparison, NHEJ is active throughout the cell cycle and potentially mutagenic as base pairs may be added or resected before ligation of the broken ends. In addition, alternative end-joining may be engaged as a slow mutagenic back-up repair mechanism in case of NHEJ deficiency6,7.
DSB induce the phosphorylation of the histone H2AX at Serine 139 in a region of several megabase pairs around each DSB. The forming nuclear foci are named &#947;H2AX foci and are detectable by immunofluorescence microscopy8. &#947;H2AX promotes the recruitment of further DSB-responsive proteins and is involved in chromatin remodeling, DNA repair, and signal transduction9. As each &#947;H2AX focus is considered to represent a single DSB, the quantification of DSB by immunofluorescence microscopy is possible, which has been demonstrated in cancer cell lines and patient specimens10,11,12,13,14. 53BP1 (p53 binding protein 1) is another key protein in mediating DSB repair. It is involved in the recruitment of DSB-responsive proteins, checkpoint signaling, and the synapsis of DSB ends15. In addition, 53BP1 plays a critical role in the DSB repair pathway choice. It triggers the repair of DSB towards NHEJ while HR is prevented16. Considering the genuine functions of &#947;H2AX and 53BP1 in DSB repair, the simultaneous analysis of &#947;H2AX and 53BP1 by immunofluorescence microscopy may be a useful method for the precise analysis of the formation and repair of DSB.
This manuscript provides a step-by-step protocol for performing immunofluorescence microscopy of &#947;H2AX and 53BP1 in cell nuclei. Specifically, the technique is applied in normal fibroblasts of the cell line NHDF, in x-ray irradiated lymphocytes of a healthy individual and in CD34+ cells of a patient with acute myeloid leukemia. The details of the method are pointed out in the context of the presented results.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="630">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:207px;">RPMI medium</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">R0883</td>
			<td style="width:200px;">Medium for cell culture</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:207px;">Heparin sodium</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">ratiopharm</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">PZN 3029843</td>
			<td style="width:200px;">&#160;Heparin 5,000 I.U. / mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;">Sodium chloride solution 0.9%</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">B. Braun</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">PZN 1957154</td>
			<td style="width:200px;">Component of the anticoagulant stock solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:207px;">Ficoll-Paque Premium</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">GE Healthcare</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">17-5442-02</td>
			<td style="width:200px;">Medium for isolation of mononuclear cells</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:207px;">Trypsin solution 10X</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">59427C</td>
			<td style="width:200px;">Enzyme for dissociation of fibroblasts in cell culture</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:207px;">CD34 MicroBead Kit</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Miltenyi Biotec</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">130-046-702</td>
			<td style="width:200px;">Isolation of CD34+ myeloid progenitor cells</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:207px;">Diagnostic microscope slides</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>ER-203B-CE24</td>
			<td style="width:200px;">Microscope slides</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:207px;">Megafuge 1.0 R</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Heraeus</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">75003060</td>
			<td style="width:200px;">&#160;Tabletop centrifuge&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:207px;">Cytospin device</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:104px;"></td>
			<td style="width:200px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;">Lid</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Heraeus</td>
			<td>76003422</td>
			<td style="width:200px;">Lid for working without micro-tubes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;">Cyto container</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Heraeus</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">75003416</td>
			<td style="width:200px;">Cyto container with 2 conical bores</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:207px;">Clip carrier</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Heraeus</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">75003414</td>
			<td style="width:200px;">Carrier for holding a cyto container and a slide</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:207px;">Support insert</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Heraeus</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">75003417</td>
			<td style="width:200px;">Support insert for holding a clip carrier</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:207px;">Triton X-100 (Octoxinol 9)</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">85112</td>
			<td style="width:200px;">Detergent for permeabilization of cell membranes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:207px;">Potassium hydroxide solution 1M</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Merck Millipore</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">109107</td>
			<td style="width:200px;">Necessary for preparing the paraformaldehyde solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:207px;">Paraformaldehyde</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">P6148</td>
			<td style="width:200px;">Fixation agent</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:207px;">Phosphate buffered saline</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">D8537</td>
			<td style="width:200px;">Balanced salt solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:207px;">Chemiblocker</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Merck Millipore</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">2170</td>
			<td style="width:200px;">Blocking agent</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:207px;">Mouse monoclonal anti-&#947;H2AX antibody (JBW301)</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Merck Millipore</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">05-636</td>
			<td style="width:200px;">Primary antibody for detection of &#947;H2AX</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:207px;">Polyclonal rabbit anti-53BP1 antibody (NB100-304)</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Novus Biologicals</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">NB100-304</td>
			<td style="width:200px;">Primary antibody for detection of 53BP1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:207px;">Alexa Fluor 488-conjugated goat anti-mouse antibody</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Invitrogen</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">A-11001</td>
			<td style="width:200px;">Secondary antibody</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:207px;">Alexa Fluor 555-conjugated goat anti-rabbit antibody</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Invitrogen</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">A-21428</td>
			<td style="width:200px;">Secondary antibody</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:207px;">Vectashield mounting medium</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Vector Laboratories</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">H-1200</td>
			<td style="width:200px;">Contains DAPI for staining of DNA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:207px;">Axio Scope.A1</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Zeiss</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">490035</td>
			<td style="width:200px;">Fluorescence microscope</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:207px;">Cool Cube 1 CCD camera</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Metasystems</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">H-0310-010-MS</td>
			<td style="width:200px;">Camera system for digital recording</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:207px;">Isis software</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Metasystems</td>
			<td style="width:104px;">Not applicable</td>
			<td style="width:200px;">Microscope software</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

immunofluorescence microscopy of &#947;h2ax and 53bp1 for analyzing the formation and repair of dna double-strand breaks

DNA double-strand breaks (DSB) are serious DNA lesions. Analysis of the formation and repair of DSB is relevant in a broad spectrum of research areas including genome integrity, genotoxicity, radiation biology, aging, cancer, and drug development. In response to DSB, the histone H2AX is phosphorylated at Serine 139 in a region of several megabase pairs forming discrete nuclear foci detectable by immunofluorescence microscopy. In addition, 53BP1 (p53 binding protein 1) is another important DSB-responsive protein promoting repair of DSB by nonhomologous end-joining while preventing homologous recombination. According to the specific functions of &#947;H2AX and 53BP1, the combined analysis of &#947;H2AX and 53BP1 by immunofluorescence microscopy may be a reasonable approach for a detailed analysis of DSB. This manuscript provides a step-by-step protocol supplemented with methodical notes for performing the technique. Specifically, the influence of the cell cycle on &#947;H2AX foci patterns is demonstrated in normal fibroblasts of the cell line NHDF. Further, the value of the &#947;H2AX foci as a biomarker is depicted in x-ray irradiated lymphocytes of a healthy individual. Finally, genetic instability is investigated in CD34+ cells of a patient with acute myeloid leukemia by immunofluorescence microscopy of &#947;H2AX and 53BP1.

Analysis of &#947;H2AX foci in cells is most accurate in the G0/G1 phase and the G2 phase when &#947;H2AX foci appear as distinct fluorescent dots (Figure 5A). In contrast, analysis of &#947;H2AX foci in cells during the S phase is complicated by dispersed pan-nuclear &#947;H2AX speckles caused by the replication process (Figure 5B).
Fixation of the cells was performed ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Immunofluorescence Microscopy of Î³H2AX and 53BP1 for Analyzing the Formation and Repair of DNA Double-strand Breaks at JoVE.com

Immunofluorescence Microscopy of &amp;#947;H2AX and 53BP1 for Analyzing the Formation and Repair of DNA Double-strand Breaks

This manuscript provides a protocol for the analysis of DNA double-strand breaks by immunofluorescence microscopy of &#947;H2AX and 53BP1.

Immunofluorescence Microscopy of &#947;H2AX and 53BP1 for Analyzing the Formation and Repair of DNA Double-strand Breaks

DNA double-strand breaks (DSB) are serious DNA lesions. Analysis of the formation and repair of DSB is relevant in a broad spectrum of research areas ...

The overall goal of gamma-H2AX and 53BP1 immunofluorescence microscopy is to analyze the formation and repair of DNA double-strand breaks in various tissues. This method can help answer key questions in cancer research, such as how genetic instability arises in tumor cells. The main advantage of this technique is that single DNA double-string breaks can be visualized, and that the repair processes can be analyzed.Demonstrating the procedure will be Susanne Brendel, a technician of our laboratory. Begin the experiment by preparing solutions, starting with the anti-coagulant stock solution with 200 International Units of heparin per milliliter in 0.9 per cent sodium chloride. Fill each of the collection tubes with two milliliters of anticoagulant stock solution before withdrawal of the blood or bone marrow samples.Next, prepare the 10X Lysis solution for red cells with 82.91 grams ammonium chloride, 7.91 grams ammonium bicarbonate, and two milliliters of 0.5 molar ethylenediamenetetracedic acid solution to a pH of 8.0 by dissolving the agents in double distilled water for a total volume of one liter. Then, prepare the fixation solution by adding 8.3 microliters of a one molar potassium hydroxide solution to 360 milligrams of paraformaldehyde, or PFA, in a microtiter tube. Fill the tube with phosphate buffered saline, or PBS, to the one milliliter mark of the tube and heat the tube in a heating block at 95 degrees Celsius to obtain one milliliter of a 36 per cent PFA solution.Transfer the one milliliter of 36 per cent PFA solution to a 15 milliliter tube. And add eight milliliters of PBS to obtain a nine milliliter four per cent PFA stock solution. Aliquot the four per cent PFA stock solution and store it at negative 18 degrees Celsius until use for cell fixation.Next, prepare the permeabilization solution by adding 50 microliters of Octoxynol 9 to 50 milliliters of PBS to obtain a solution of approximately 0.1 per cent Octoxynol 9. Finally, prepare five per cent and two per cent blocking solutions by mixing the protein blocking agent with PBS. To prepare the blood or bone marrow samples, retrieve the tubes filled with two milliliters of the anticoagulant stock solution.Withdraw seven milliliters of blood or bone marrow per tube under sterile conditions by venepuncture or bone marrow puncture respectively. Store the samples over night at room temperature. After storage overnight, dilute the heparinized blood sample one to one with PBS and the heparinized bone marrow sample in a ratio of one to three with PBS.Suspend the cells gently by drawing them in and out of the pipette two times. Next, add one volume of density gradient medium to a fresh tube. Gently layer the diluted blood or bone marrow on top of the density gradient medium and take care not to mix the two layers.Centrifuge the tube for 30 minutes at room temperature and 400 G.Draw the upper plasma layer off with a pipette. Then, carefully harvest the mononuclear cells in the layer above the density gradient medium. Transfer the mononuclear cells into a fresh tube and add at least three volumes of PBS.Suspend the cells gently by drawing them in and out of the pipette two times. Centrifuge the tube. After the spin, remove the supernatant.Add 10 milliliters of four degrees Celsius 1x Lysis solution for red cells. Re-suspend the cells gently by drawing them in and out of the pipette two times and place the tube on ice for five minutes. Then, add 30 milliliters of PBS at four degrees Celsius and centrifuge the tube.Use CD34 micro beads and cell separation columns for the isolation of CD34 positive cells. Prepare two cyto-spins with mononuclear cells of the patient samples by centrifugation of one times 10 the five cells for each preparation. Fix the cells with 200 microliters of four per cent PFA for 10 minutes.After fixation, wash the cells gently three times with 30 milliliters of PBS for five minutes each on a shaker. Then, permeablize the cells with 200 microliters of 0.1 per cent Octoxynol 9 for 10 minutes. Wash the cells gently three times with 30 milliliters of five per cent blocking solution for five minutes each on a lab shaker.Block the cells in 30 milliliters of fresh five per cent blocking solution for one hour. The fixation and permeablization of the cells with four per cent paraformaldehyde in 0.1 per cent Octoxynol 9 preserves the gamma-H2AX and 53BP1 foci distinctly. Incubate one preparation of the cells with a mouse monoclonal anti-gamma-H2AX antibody and the other preparation of the cells with a mouse monoclonal anti-gamma-H2AX antibody and a polyclonal rabbit anti-53BP1 antibody overnight at four degrees Celsius.The use of proven anti-gamma-H2AX and anti-53BP1 antibodies is highly recommended. After incubation, wash the cells gently three times with 30 milliliters of two per cent blocking solution for each five minutes on a lab shaker. Next, incubate the first preparation of the cells with an Alexa 488 conjugated goat anti-mouse secondary antibody diluted one in 500 in two per cent blocking solution.Incubate the second preparation of the cells with an Alexa 488 conjugated goat anti-mouse secondary antibody and an Alexa 555 conjugated donkey anti-rabbit secondary antibody diluted one in 500 into two per cent blocking solution. Wash the cells gently three times with 30 milliliters of PBS on a laboratory shaker. Remove the PBS and mount the cells with mounting medium.Cautiously put a cover slip on top of the mounting medium so that no air bubbles are embedded. Wait at least three hours for the mounting medium to harden before analyzing the cells by fluorescence microscopy. Finally, analyze the gamma-H2AX and 53BP1 foci in the cell nuclei with a fluorescence microscope equipped with filters for DAPI, Alexa 488, and Cy3 during imaging at a 100x objected magnification.Analysis of gamma-H2AX foci in cells is most accurate in the G0 G1 phase and the G2 phase when gamma-H2AX foci appear as distinct fluorescent dots as shown in this representative image of fibroblasts. In contrast, analysis of gamma-H2AX foci in cells during the S phase is complicated by dispersed pan-nuclear gamma-H2AX speckles caused by the replication process. Immunofluorescence staining of gamma-H2AX was used for the quantification of DNA double-strand breaks in irradiated tissues and elucidated that the levels of gamma-H2AX foci in irradiated lymphocytes are proportional to the irradiation dose.Co-localization of gamma-H2AX and 53BP1 foci in CD34 positive cells of a patient with acute myeloid leukemia indicates promotion of 53BP1 mediated nonhomologous end-joining repair mechanisms at sites of DNA double strand breaks. After this watching this video, you should have a good understanding of how to perform gamma-H2AX and 53BP1 immunofluorescence microscopy for the analysis of DNA double strand breaks. Following this procedure, other methods like immunoblotting of phosphoryrelated ATM, ATR, checkpoint kinase one, checkpoint kinase two and TP53 can be performed in tumor cells in order to analyze alterations of the DNA damage response.

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Research

JoVE Journal

Cancer Research

15.9K Views.  Medical Faculty Mannheim of the Heidelberg University. The overall goal of gamma-H2AX and 53BP1 immunofluorescence microscopy is to analyze the formation and repair of DNA double-strand breaks in various tissues. This method can help answer key questions in cancer research, such as how genetic instability arises in tumor cells. The main advantage of this technique is that single DNA double-string breaks can be visualized, and that the repair processes can be analyzed.Demonstrating the procedure will be Susanne Brendel, a technician of our ...