The support of the Australian Institute of Nuclear Science and Engineering is acknowledged. TCK was the recipient of AINSE awards. Epigenomic Medicine Lab is supported by the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia (566559). This work is funded by the CRC for Biomedical Imaging Development Ltd, established and supported under the Australian Government s Cooperative Research Centres (CRC) program. LM is supported by Melbourne Research (University of Melbourne) and Biomedical Imaging CRC supplementary scholarships. The support of Monash Micro Imaging (Drs Stephen Cody and I&#347;ka Carmichael) was invaluable for this work.

Cell preparation
<ol>
<li>	Human erythroleukemic K562 cells are grown in RPMI-1640 medium supplemented with 10% (v/v) fetal bovine serum and 20 mg/ml gentamicin in a humidified 5% CO2 environment at 37&deg;C.</li>
<li>	Approximately 18 hours prior to staining wash exponentially growing cells (optimal at 5 x 105 cells/ml) with phosphate buffered saline (PBS), resuspend in fresh media and return to 37&deg;C, 5% CO2.</li>
<li>	Wash the cells twice with PBS by centrifugation at approximately 1500 rpm for 5 minutes and resuspend in fresh media.</li>
<li>	Count cells and adjust the cell density to approximately 5 x 105 cells/ml.</li>
</ol>
Cells can be counted either by an automated method (e.g. Sysmex or Coulter counter with filter size between 5 to 20 microns) or by using the trypan blue exclusion method and a haemocytometer. 
Excess number of cells (>800 cells/cm2) may lead to non-uniform staining.

Irradiation and immunofluorescence staining
<ol>
<li>	Assemble cytospin clips, filter cards and slides with appropriate labelling.</li>
</ol>
When assembling the cytospin apparatus ensure that the hole in filter card coincides with the funnel.
<ol start="2">
<li>	Expose cells to either &gamma;-radiation or X-rays (2Gy in this example).</li>
</ol>
To prevent the formation of foci during the irradiation, keep the cells on ice for 5 to 10 minutes prior to and during irradiation.
Following irradiation incubate the cells at 37&deg;C, 5% CO2 for the required time (For peak &gamma;H2AX levels 30 minutes to 1 hour; 1 hour in this example).
<ol start="3">
<li>	Wash the cells twice with cold PBS by centrifugation and resuspend in fresh PBS.</li>
<li>	Dispense 100 to 150 &mu;L of the cell suspension into each cytospin funnel and spin at 500 rpm for 5 minutes.</li>
<li>	Separate the slides from cytospins and allow the cells to moderately air dry for approximately 15 minutes.</li>
</ol>
Do not let cells dry completely as cellular morphology may disintegrate.
<ol start="6">
<li>	Draw a circle around the cells with a hydrophobic pen.</li>
<li>	Fix cells with 4% paraformaldehyde for 5 minutes at room temperature (RT).</li>
</ol>
In our experience, fixation with paraformaldehyde is superior to fixing with ethanol or methanol.
Suspension cells require fixation for 5 minutes at RT whereas longer fixation times (15 to 20 minutes) are needed for optimal fixation of adherent cells.
We find that staining immediately yields better results than storing the fixed slides at -20&deg;C which typically results in high background fluorescence.
<ol start="8">
<li>	Wash the cells twice with PBS for 5 minutes each.</li>
<li>	Permeabilize the cells with 0.1% Triton-X 100 at RT for 5 minutes.</li>
</ol>
Compared to Tween-80 we typically observe better signals in cells permeabilized with Triton-X 100. Depending on cell type it may be necessary to change the permeabilisation time. For example, in K562 cells permeabilization for 5 minutes at RT is sufficient whereas in adherent cells a 15 minute permeabilization is required.
<ol start="10">
<li>	Wash cells three times with PBS for 5 minutes each.</li>
<li>	Block cells in 1% BSA for 30 minute (3 x 10 minutes) at RT.</li>
</ol>
We compared the blocking efficiency using serum (derived from same species as the secondary antibodies) and bovine serum albumin in PBS. BSA was more efficient in minimizing non-specific binding of secondary antibodies compared to serum. We compared different blocking times, overnight blocking at 4&deg;C compared to 3 x 10 minute and 3 x 20 minute blocking steps at room temperature, and determined that blocking for 3 x 10 minutes was optimal.
<ol start="12">
<li>	Add 50 &mu;L of primary antibody (1: 500 diluted in 1% BSA) to each slide.</li>
</ol>
Incubation with primary antibody at RT for 60 minutes results in reduced background staining compared to an overnight incubation at 4&deg;C.
<ol start="13">
<li>	To stain different markers simultaneously use antibodies raised in different species (e.g. mouse anti-&gamma;H2AX and rabbit anti-methylated H3K4 in this example).</li>
<li>	Incubate with primary antibodies for 90 minutes at RT on a rocking platform at 250 rpm.</li>
</ol>
All incubations are performed in a humidified staining trough.
<ol start="15">
<li>	Wash cells three times with PBS for 5 minutes each.</li>
<li>	Add 50 &mu;L of (1: 1000 diluted in 1% BSA) secondary antibody to each slide.</li>
</ol>
To stain for different markers on the same slide use secondary antibodies with different species specificity (according to the primary antibody) and fluorescence emission wavelength (e.g. anti-mouse Alexa 488 (green) and anti-rabbit Alexa-546 (red) in this example).
<ol start="17">
<li>	Incubate cells for 60 minutes at RT on a rocking platform at 250 rpm.</li>
</ol>
It is recommended to incubate cells in a dark moist chamber to avoid fading and drying of the secondary antibody.
<ol start="18">
<li>	Wash cells three times with PBS for 5 minutes each.</li>
<li>	Add 50 &mu;L of (1:500 diluted in PBS) TOPRO-3 to each slide.</li>
<li>	Wash slides with PBS for 3X 5 minutes.</li>
<li>	Remove excess moisture from slides and add anti-fade solution.</li>
</ol>
It is recommended not to dry cells completely before adding anti-fade solution.
<ol start="22">
<li>	Coverslip, seal with nail varnish and leave slides overnight in the dark at room temperature.</li>
</ol>
It is recommended to use confocal specific coverslips #1.5 (0.16-19 microns thick) and clear nail polish.
While placing the coverslip on slide, care should be taken to avoid the formation of air bubbles.

Image acquisition
<ol>
<li>	A Zeiss LSM510 Meta Confocal Microscope is used to acquire images using the standard GFP (green, 488 nm), PI (red 543 nm) and far red (blue 633 nm) lasers.</li>
</ol>
Images acquired using a confocal microscope reveal better spatial resolution.
Since the size of &gamma;H2AX foci may be lower than 0.5 &mu;icrons, it is recommended to acquire images with at least a 0.5 &mu;icron step size along the Z-axis.
A 63 x oil immersion objective lens is preferred compared to either higher or lower magnification.
For imaging many cells for foci counting it is preferable to use a scan speed of 8 and image size of 1024 x 1024 pixels. To illustrate the spatial relationship between different nuclear proteins it is recommended to use a scan speed of 6 with image size of 2048 x 2048 pixels.
When imaging from multiple channels a line scan acquisition is recommended compared to a frame scan. This avoids bleaching and better resolution is achieved. Sequential scanning is used to prevent bleed through between channels.

Foci counting
Image analysis and foci counting can be performed using various software packages (inlcuding Metamorph, Image-J and Imaris). The procedure for foci counting using Metamorph is described here.
<ol>
<li>	Open &gamma;H2AX image stacks either directly from the file menu or by using the build number stacks option.</li>
<li>	Go to Process menu and chose stack arithmetic.</li>
<li>	Chose Maximum projection and select the planes to be included and click OK.</li>
<li>	Save the resulting image as a &gamma;H2AX Tiff. file and open the TOPRO-3 (blue) image.</li>
<li>	Go to regions and select a region drawing tool and draw regions around nuclei.</li>
<li>	 Click on &gamma;H2AX Tiff image and go to process menu and select morphological filters.</li>
<li>	 Chose Top-Hat and select &gamma;H2AX image as a source image.</li>
<li>	Apply Top-Hat filter and resulting image will be a binary image with less noise and reduced variation in foci intensity.</li>
</ol>
Care should be taken when choosing Top-Hat values. Optimal values can be obtained by visual comparison of images before and after applying filters.
<ol start="9">
<li>	Go to the process menu and select threshold image.</li>
<li>	 Choose inclusive threshold and select the lower and higher threshold values.</li>
</ol>
It is typically the threshold values that affect foci number. Therefore, much attention is required when selecting threshold values. This can be best achieved by the counting foci number using different threshold values in cells exposed to lower than 2 Gy of &gamma;-radiation and then compare foci numbers with manual counting (by eye). The optimal threshold value is the one that minimizes the inclusion of background and maximizes inclusion of foci.
<ol start="11">
<li>	Select the TOPRO-3 image and go to the regions menu and select the transfer regions option. Select the source image as TOPRPO-3 and the destination as Top-Hat and click OK.</li>
<li>	Once the nuclear regions are transferred to the Top-Hat image go to the measure menu and select Integrated Morphometry Analysis.</li>
<li>	 In the pop-up window select source image- Top-Hat and measure by area.</li>
<li>	Select measure all regions and click on measure to obtain the foci number in all of the corresponding nuclei in the Top-Hat image.</li>
<li>	The foci numbers from each region can be exported into a MS-Excel file by using the log- data option.</li>
</ol>

3D reconstruction of images
To create a 3D image from a stack using Metamorph:
<ol>
<li>	Go to the stack menu and choose 3D reconstruction.</li>
<li>	Select the angle of rotation (e.g. 160&deg;, 320&deg;).</li>
<li>	Select the 3D reconstruction type- maximum.</li>
<li>	Chose the plane of rotation (horizontal or vertical).</li>
<li>	Chose the Z-calibration distance.</li>
</ol>
It is preferable to use the user specified Z-distance (optimal is 0.5 &mu;icrons).
<ol start="6">
<li>	Chose OK to create a 3D reconstruction.</li>
</ol>

Line scan analysis
For line scan analysis using Metamorph:
<ol>
<li>	Open either a single plane image or a stacked file.</li>
<li>	Go to the measure tool bars command and select line scan analysis.</li>
<li>	Draw a line across the cell and this will automatically reveal the fluorescence intensity and distance of each marker along the path of line.</li>
</ol>
To elucidate the spatial relationship of various chromatin markers, for example, &gamma;H2AX foci and histone methylation, it is preferable to draw lines which span regions that are both dense and poor in these markers.

Representative Data
For the purpose of this demonstration we used antibodies to &gamma;H2AX foci and to H3K4me, to evaluate the spatial distribution of DSBs to an epigenetic determinant of actively transcribing euchromatin. As shown in figure 1, following irradiation with 2Gy, &gamma;H2AX foci formed predominantly in regions that were dull for both H3K4me staining and for the DNA stain TOPRO-3 (brightly stained DNA regions are indicative of heterochromatin).
 <img src="/files/ftp_upload/2203/2203fig1.jpg" alt="Figure 1" /> 
Figure 1. &gamma;H2AX foci form predominantly in euchromatin in response to ionizing radiation. (A) Immunofluorescence visualization of &gamma;H2AX foci (green) in human erythroleukemic K562 cells, 1 hour after &gamma;-irradiation (2 Gy). &gamma;H2AX foci are shown in relation to H3K4me, representing actively transcribing euchromatin (red). DNA is labelled with TOPRO-3 (blue). The merged image (blue, red and green) demonstrates the exclusion &gamma;H2AX foci from heterochromatic regions. The line scan analysis (fluorescence intensity vs distance) indicates the relative distribution of the markers in a single plane. (B) Slices at different planes from the 3D reconstruction of the merged image described above.

<ol>
	<li>Rogakou, E. P., Boon, C., Redon, C., Bonner, W. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Megabase+chromatin+domains+involved+in+DNA+double-strand+breaks+in+vivo.">Megabase chromatin domains involved in DNA double-strand breaks in vivo.</a> J Cell Biol. 146 (5), 905-916 (1999).</li><li>Rogakou, E. P., Pilch, D. R., Orr, A. H., Ivanova, V. S., Bonner, W. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=DNA+double-stranded+breaks+induce+histone+H2AX+phosphorylation+on+serine+139.">DNA double-stranded breaks induce histone H2AX phosphorylation on serine 139.</a> J Biol Chem. 273 (10), 5858-5868 (1998).</li><li>Bonner, W. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Nat Rev Cancer. 8 (12), 957-967 (2008).</li><li>Dickey, J. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=H2AX:+functional+roles+and+potential+applications.">H2AX: functional roles and potential applications.</a> Chromosoma. 118 (6), 683-692 (2009).</li><li>Kim, J. A., Kruhlak, M., Dotiwala, F., Nussenzweig, A., Haber, J. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Heterochromatin+is+refractory+to+gamma-H2AX+modification+in+yeast+and+mammals.">Heterochromatin is refractory to gamma-H2AX modification in yeast and mammals.</a> J Cell Biol. 178 (2), 209-218 (2007).</li><li>Cowell, I. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=gammaH2AX+foci+form+preferentially+in+euchromatin+after+ionising-radiation.">gammaH2AX foci form preferentially in euchromatin after ionising-radiation.</a> PLoS One. 2 (10), e1057-e1057 (2007).</li><li>Kinner, A., Wu, W., Staudt, C., &amp;amp, I. l. i. a. k. i. s., G, . <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gamma-H2AX+in+recognition+and+signaling+of+DNA+double-strand+breaks+in+the+context+of+chromatin.">Gamma-H2AX in recognition and signaling of DNA double-strand breaks in the context of chromatin.</a> Nucleic Acids Res. 36 (17), 5678-5694 (2008).</li><li>Vasireddy, R. S., Karagiannis, T. C., El-Osta, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=gamma-radiation-induced+gammaH2AX+formation+occurs+preferentially+in+actively+transcribing+euchromatic+loci.">gamma-radiation-induced gammaH2AX formation occurs preferentially in actively transcribing euchromatic loci.</a> Cell Mol Life Sci. 67 (2), 291-294 (2010).</li><li>Goodarzi, A. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=ATM+signaling+facilitates+repair+of+DNA+double-strand+breaks+associated+with+heterochromatin.">ATM signaling facilitates repair of DNA double-strand breaks associated with heterochromatin.</a> Mol Cell. 31 (2), 167-177 (2008).</li></ol>

No conflicts of interest declared.

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		<div>
		<table border="1">
		<thead>
		<tr>
		<th>Material Name</th>
		<th>Type</th>
		<th>Company</th>
		<th>Catalogue Number</th>
		<th>Comment</th>
		</tr>
		</thead>
		<tbody>
		
<tr>
<td>Roswell Park Memorial Institute -1640 (RPMI-1640)</td>
<td>Growth medium</td>
<td>Invitrogen</td>
<td>22400071</td>
<td>RPMI-1640, pH 7.4 medium supplemented with 10% (v/v) fetal bovine, 2mM L-glutamine, 20&#x03BC;g/ml gentamicin, 20mM (HEPES) N-2-Hydroxyethylpiperazine-N&#x2019;-2-Ethanesulfonic Acid</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Fetal Bovine Serum (FBS)</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
<td>F2442</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA)</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
<td>A7906</td>
<td>BSA (1%) is used to block any non-specific antibody binding. Primary and secondary antibodies are diluted in BSA.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>PBS (without Ca2+ and Mg2+)</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Invitrogen</td>
<td>17-517Q</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Trypan blue</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
<td>T6146</td>
<td>Used to distinguish between live and dead cells.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Triton X-100</td>
<td>Reagent</td>
<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
<td>T8787</td>
<td>Triton X-100 (0.1%) used to permeabilise cells.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Paraformaldehyde</td>
<td>Reagent</td>
<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
<td>158127</td>
<td>Paraformaldehyde (4%) used to fix cells.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Mouse monoclonal anti-phospho histone-H2AX antibody</td>
<td>Primary Antibody</td>
<td>Millipore, USA</td>
<td>16193</td>
<td>Dilution of primary antibody (1:500), in 1% BSA.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>HistoneH3 (Mono-methyl K4) </td>
<td>Primary Antibody</td>
<td>Abcam, Cambridge, UK</td>
<td>AB8895</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Alexa Fluor 488 goat anti-mouse IgG (H+L)</td>
<td>Secondary Antibody</td>
<td>Invitrogen, USA</td>
<td>11029</td>
<td>Dilution of secondary antibody (1:500), in 1% BSA.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Alexa Fluor 546 goat anti-rabbit IgG (H+L)</td>
<td>Secondary Antibody</td>
<td>Invitrogen, USA</td>
<td>11035</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>TOPRO3</td>
<td>DNA Stain</td>
<td>Invitrogen, USA</td>
<td>T3605</td>
<td>TOPRO3 is a DNA dye with an Abs/Em of 642/661 nm. DAPI could be used if the confocal microscope is equipped with a 405 nm laser. </td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>ProLong Gold </td>
<td>Anti-fade solution</td>
<td>Invitrogen</td>
<td>P36930</td>
<td>This glycerol based mounting medium must be used with an oil based lense that matches its refractive index.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Polylysine slides</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Menzel-Gl&#228;ser, Germany</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Coverslips (22x50mm)</td>
<td>Coverslips</td>
<td>Menzel-Gl&#228;ser, Germany</td>
<td>CS2250100</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Tissue Culture Flask, Vented Cap</td>
<td>Culture Flask</td>
<td>BD Falcon</td>
<td>353112</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Shandon Cytospin 4</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>ThermoElectron Corp</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Cytofunnels</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Shandon, Inc.</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Filter Cards </td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Shandon, Inc</td>
<td>353025</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Coplin Jar, glass</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Grale Scientific P/L</td>
<td>1771-OG</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Staining Trough</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Grale Scientific P/L</td>
<td>V1991.99</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>PAP Pen</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Zymed Laboratories, Invitrogen</td>
<td> 008877</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Gammacell 1000 Elite Irradiator</td>
<td>Gamma Irradiator</td>
<td>Nordion International Inc.</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<tr>
<td>Zeiss LSM 510 Meta Confocal</td>
<td>Confocal Microscope</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Equipped with 3 lasers: 488 nm, 543 nm and 633 nm.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Metamorph</td>
<td>Software for Imaging analysis</td>
<td>Molecular Devices, USA</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>		</tbody>
		</table>
		</div>

evaluation of the spatial distribution of &gamma;h2ax following ionizing radiation

An early molecular response to DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) is phosphorylation of the Ser-139 residue within the terminal SQEY motif of the histone H2AX1,2. This phosphorylation of H2AX is mediated by the phosphatidyl-inosito 3-kinase (PI3K) family of proteins, ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM), DNA-protein kinase catalytic subunit and ATM and RAD3-related (ATR)3. The phosphorylated form of H2AX, referred to as &gamma;H2AX, spreads to adjacent regions of chromatin from the site of the DSB, forming discrete foci, which are easily visualized by immunofluorecence microscopy3. Analysis and quantitation of &gamma;H2AX foci has been widely used to evaluate DSB formation and repair, particularly in response to ionizing radiation and for evaluating the efficacy of various radiation modifying compounds and cytotoxic compounds4.
Given the exquisite specificity and sensitivity of this de novo marker of DSBs, it has provided new insights into the processes of DNA damage and repair in the context of chromatin. For example, in radiation biology the central paradigm is that the nuclear DNA is the critical target with respect to radiation sensitivity. Indeed, the general consensus in the field has largely been to view chromatin as a homogeneous template for DNA damage and repair. However, with the use of &gamma;H2AX as molecular marker of DSBs, a disparity in &gamma;-irradiation-induced &gamma;H2AX foci formation in euchromatin and heterochromatin has been observed5-7. Recently, we used a panel of antibodies to either mono-, di- or tri- methylated histone H3 at lysine 9 (H3K9me1, H3K9me2, H3K9me3) which are epigenetic imprints of constitutive heterochromatin and transcriptional silencing and lysine 4 (H3K4me1, H3K4me2, H3K4me3), which are tightly correlated actively transcribing euchromatic regions, to investigate the spatial distribution of &gamma;H2AX following ionizing radiation8. In accordance with the prevailing ideas regarding chromatin biology, our findings indicated a close correlation between &gamma;H2AX formation and active transcription9. Here we demonstrate our immunofluorescence method for detection and quantitation of &gamma;H2AX foci in non-adherent cells, with a particular focus on co-localization with other epigenetic markers, image analysis and 3D-modeling.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Evaluation of the Spatial Distribution of Î³H2AX following Ionizing Radiation at JoVE.com

Evaluation of the Spatial Distribution of &amp;#947;H2AX following Ionizing Radiation

Microscopic analysis of &gamma;H2AX foci, which form following the phosphorylation of H2AX at Ser-139 in response to DNA double-strand breaks, has become an invaluable tool in radiation biology. Here we used an antibody to mono-methylated histone H3 at lysine 4 as an epigenetic marker of actively transcribing euchromatin, to evaluate the spatial distribution of radiation-induced &gamma;H2AX formation within the nucleus.

Evaluation of the Spatial Distribution of &gamma;H2AX following Ionizing Radiation

An early molecular response to DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) is phosphorylation of the Ser-139 residue within the terminal SQEY motif of the histone ...

evaluation-spatial-distribution-h2ax-following-ionizing

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12.6K Views.  The Alfred Medical Research and Education Precinct. Microscopic analysis of γH2AX foci, which form following the phosphorylation of H2AX at Ser-139 in response to DNA double-strand breaks, has become an invaluable tool in radiation biology. Here we used an antibody to mono-methylated histone H3 at lysine 4 as an epigenetic marker of actively transcribing euchromatin, to evaluate the spatial distribution of radiation-induced γH2AX formation within the nucleus. 

Video: Evaluation of the Spatial Distribution of &#947;H2AX following Ionizing Radiation

Quantification of &gamma;H2AX Foci in Response to Ionising Radiation

DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs), which are induced by either endogenous metabolic processes or by exogenous sources, are one of the most critical DNA lesions with respect to survival and preservation of genomic integrity. An early response to the induction of DSBs is phosphorylation of the H2A histone variant, H2AX, at the serine-139 residue, in the highly conserved C-terminal SQEY motif, forming &gamma;H2AX1. Following induction of DSBs, H2AX is rapidly phosphorylated by the phosphatidyl-inosito 3-kinase (PIKK) family of proteins, ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM), DNA-protein kinase catalytic subunit and ATM and RAD3-related (ATR)2. Typically, only a few base-pairs (bp) are implicated in a DSB, however, there is significant signal amplification, given the importance of chromatin modifications in DNA damage signalling and repair. Phosphorylation of H2AX mediated predominantly by ATM spreads to adjacent areas of chromatin, affecting approximately 0.03% of total cellular H2AX per DSB2,3. This corresponds to phosphorylation of approximately 2000 H2AX molecules spanning ~2 Mbp regions of chromatin surrounding the site of the DSB and results in the formation of discrete &gamma;H2AX foci which can be easily visualized and quantitated by immunofluorescence microscopy2. The loss of &gamma;H2AX at DSB reflects repair, however, there is some controversy as to what defines complete repair of DSBs; it has been proposed that rejoining of both strands of DNA is adequate however, it has also been suggested that re-instatement of the original chromatin state of compaction is necessary4-8. The disappearence of &gamma;H2AX involves at least in part, dephosphorylation by phosphatases, phosphatase 2A and phosphatase 4C5,6. Further, removal of &gamma;H2AX by redistribution involving histone exchange with H2A.Z has been implicated7,8. Importantly, the quantitative analysis of &gamma;H2AX foci has led to a wide range of applications in medical and nuclear research. Here, we demonstrate the most commonly used immunofluorescence method for evaluation of initial DNA damage by detection and quantitation of &gamma;H2AX foci in &gamma;-irradiated adherent human keratinocytes9.

Quantification of &amp;#947;H2AX Foci in Response to Ionising Radiation

Quantification of DNA double-strand streaks using &gamma;H2AX formation as a molecular marker has become an invaluable tool in radiation biology. Here we demonstrate the use of an immunofluorescence assay for quantification of &gamma;H2AX foci after exposure of cells to radiation.

DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs), which are induced by either endogenous metabolic processes or by exogenous sources, are one of the most critical DNA ...

The Production of C. elegans Transgenes via Recombineering with the galK Selectable Marker

The creation of transgenic animals is widely utilized in C. elegans research including the use of GFP fusion proteins to study the regulation and expression pattern of genes of interest or generation of tandem affinity purification (TAP) tagged versions of specific genes to facilitate their purification. Typically transgenes are generated by placing a promoter upstream of a GFP reporter gene or cDNA of interest, and this often produces a representative expression pattern. However, critical elements of gene regulation, such as control elements in the 3' untranslated region or alternative promoters, could be missed by this approach. Further only a single splice variant can be usually studied by this means. In contrast, the use of worm genomic DNA carried by fosmid DNA clones likely includes most if not all elements involved in gene regulation in vivo which permits the greater ability to capture the genuine expression pattern and timing. To facilitate the generation of transgenes using fosmid DNA, we describe an E. coli based recombineering procedure to insert GFP, a TAP-tag, or other sequences of interest into any location in the gene. The procedure uses the galK gene as the selection marker for both the positive and negative selection steps in recombineering which results in obtaining the desired modification with high efficiency. Further, plasmids containing the galK gene flanked by homology arms to commonly used GFP and TAP fusion genes are available which reduce the cost of oligos by 50% when generating a GFP or TAP fusion protein. These plasmids use the R6K replication origin which precludes the need for extensive PCR product purification. Finally, we also demonstrate a technique to integrate the unc-119 marker on to the fosmid backbone which allows the fosmid to be directly injected or bombarded into worms to generate transgenic animals. This video demonstrates the procedures involved in generating a transgene via recombineering using this method.

The Production of C. elegans Transgenes via Recombineering with the galK Selectable Marker

The ability to produce transgenes for Caenorhabditis elegans using genomic DNA carried by fosmids is particularly attractive as all of the native regulatory elements are retained. Described is a simple and robust procedure for the production of transgenes via recombineering with the galK selectable marker.

The creation of transgenic animals is widely utilized in C. elegans research including the use of GFP fusion proteins to study the regulation and ...

The Slice Culture Method for Following Development of Tooth Germs In Explant Culture

Explant culture allows manipulation of developing organs at specific time points&#160;and is therefore an important method for the developmental biologist. For many organs it is difficult to access developing tissue to allow monitoring during ex vivo culture. The slice culture method allows access to tissue so that morphogenetic movements can be followed and specific cell populations can be targeted for manipulation or lineage tracing.
In this paper we describe a method of slice culture that has been very successful for culture of tooth germs in a range of species. The method provides excellent access to the tooth germs, which develop at a similar rate to that observed in vivo, surrounded by the other jaw tissues. This allows tissue interactions between the tooth and surrounding tissue to be monitored. Although this paper concentrates on tooth germs, the same protocol can be applied to follow development of a number of other organs, such as salivary glands, Meckel&#39;s cartilage, nasal glands, tongue, and ear.

Here we detail a method to culture tooth germs in mandible slices using a tissue chopper. This method allows unique access to the tooth during development, providing excellent opportunity for manipulation and lineage tracing, not available using more traditional culture methods.

Explant culture allows manipulation of developing organs at specific time points&#160;and is therefore an important method for the developmental ...

Analysis of Global RNA Synthesis at the Single Cell Level following Hypoxia

Hypoxia or lowering of the oxygen availability is involved in many physiological and pathological processes. At the molecular level, cells initiate a particular transcriptional program in order to mount an appropriate and coordinated cellular response. The cell possesses several oxygen sensor enzymes that require molecular oxygen as cofactor for their activity. These range from prolyl-hydroxylases to histone demethylases. The majority of studies analyzing cellular responses to hypoxia are based on cellular populations and average studies, and as such single cell analysis of hypoxic cells are seldom performed. Here we describe a method of analysis of global RNA synthesis at the single cell level in hypoxia by using Click-iT RNA imaging kits in an oxygen controlled workstation, followed by microscopy analysis and quantification.&nbsp; Using cancer cells exposed to hypoxia for different lengths of time, RNA is labeled and measured in each cell. This analysis allows the visualization of temporal and cell-to-cell changes in global RNA synthesis following hypoxic stress.

We describe a technique for analysis of global RNA synthesis in hypoxia using imaging. Click-chemistry labeling of RNA has not previously been performed under hypoxia and allows visualization of global RNA changes at the single cell level. This approach complements the existing averaged RNA techniques, allowing direct visualization of cell-to-cell changes in global RNA synthesis.

Hypoxia or lowering of the oxygen availability is involved in many physiological and pathological processes. At the molecular level, cells initiate a ...

Imaging Spatial Reorganization of a MAPK Signaling Pathway Using the Tobacco Transient Expression System

Visualization of dynamic signaling events in live cells has been a challenge. We expanded an established transient expression system, the biomolecular fluorescent complementation (BiFC) assay in tobacco epidermal cells, from testing protein-protein interaction to monitoring spatial distribution of signal transduction in plant cells. In this protocol, we used the BiFC assay to show that the interaction and the signaling between the Arabidopsis MAPKKK YODA and MAPK6 occur at the plasma membrane. When the scaffold protein BASL was co-expressed, the YODA-MAPK interaction redistributed and spatially co-polarized with CFP-BASL. This modified tobacco expression system allows for quick examination of signaling localization and dynamic changes (less than 4 days) and can accommodate multiple of fluorescent protein colors (at least three). We also presented detailed methods to quantify protein distribution (asymmetric spatial localization, or &#34;polarization&#34;) in tobacco cells. This advanced tobacco expression system has a potential to be used widely for quick testing of dynamic signaling events in live plant cells.

At the subcellular level, signaling events are dynamically modulated by developmental and environmental cues. Here we describe a protocol that employs the tobacco transient expression system to monitor dynamic protein-protein interaction and to disclose spatial organization of signal transduction in plant cells.

Visualization of dynamic signaling events in live cells has been a challenge. We expanded an established transient expression system, the biomolecular ...

Analysis of SCAP N-glycosylation and Trafficking in Human Cells

Elevated lipogenesis is a common characteristic of cancer and metabolic diseases. Sterol regulatory element-binding proteins (SREBPs), a family of membrane-bound transcription factors controlling the expression of genes important for the synthesis of cholesterol, fatty acids and phospholipids, are frequently upregulated in these diseases. In the process of SREBP nuclear translocation, SREBP-cleavage activating protein (SCAP) plays a central role in the trafficking of SREBP from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to the Golgi and in subsequent proteolysis activation. Recently, we uncovered that glucose-mediated N-glycosylation of SCAP is a prerequisite condition for the exit of SCAP/SREBP from the ER and movement to the Golgi. N-glycosylation stabilizes SCAP and directs SCAP/SREBP trafficking. Here, we describe a protocol for the isolation of membrane fractions in human cells and for the preparation of the samples for the detection of SCAP N-glycosylation and total protein by using western blot. We further provide a method to monitor SCAP trafficking by using confocal microscopy. This protocol is appropriate for the investigation of SCAP N-glycosylation and trafficking in mammalian cells.

Analysis of SCAP N-glycosylation and Trafficking in Human Cells

We describe a modified method for membrane fraction isolation from human cells and sample preparation for the detection of SCAP N-glycosylation and total protein by using western blot. We further introduce a GFP-labeling method to monitor SCAP trafficking using confocal microscopy. This protocol can be used in regular biology laboratories.

Elevated lipogenesis is a common characteristic of cancer and metabolic diseases. Sterol regulatory element-binding proteins (SREBPs), a family of ...

The Use of Ex Vivo Whole-organ Imaging and Quantitative Tissue Histology to Determine the Bio-distribution of Fluorescently Labeled Molecules

Fluorescent labeling is a well-established process for examining the fate of labeled molecules under a variety of experimental conditions both in vitro and in vivo. Fluorescent probes are particularly useful in determining the bio-distribution of administered large molecules, where the addition of a small-molecule fluorescent label is unlikely to affect the kinetics or bio-distribution of the compound. A variety of methods exist to examine bio-distribution that vary significantly in the amount of effort required and whether the resulting measurements are fully quantitative, but using multiple methods in conjunction can provide a rapid and effective system for analyzing bio-distributions.
Ex vivo whole-organ imaging is a method that can be used to quickly compare the relative concentrations of fluorescent molecules within tissues and between multiple types of tissues or treatment groups. Using an imaging platform designed for live-animal or whole-organ imaging, fluorescence within intact tissues can be determined without further processing, saving time and labor while providing an accurate picture of the overall bio-distribution. This process is ideal in experiments attempting to determine the tissue specificity of a compound or for the comparison of multiple different compounds. Quantitative tissue histology on the other hand requires extensive further processing of tissues in order to create a quantitative measure of the labeled compounds. To accurately assess bio-distribution, all tissues of interest must be sliced, scanned, and analyzed relative to standard curves in order to make comparisons between tissues or groups. Quantitative tissue histology is the gold standard for determining absolute compound concentrations within tissues.
Here, we describe how both methods can be used together effectively to assess the ability of different administration methods and compound modifications to target and deliver fluorescently labeled molecules to the central nervous system1.

The Use of Ex Vivo Whole-organ Imaging and Quantitative Tissue Histology to Determine the Bio-distribution of Fluorescently Labeled Molecules

Ex vivo whole-organ imaging is a rapid method for determining the relative concentrations of fluorescently labeled compounds within and between tissues or treatment groups. Conversely, quantitative fluorescence histology, while more labor intensive, allows for the quantification of the absolute tissue levels of labeled molecules.

Fluorescent labeling is a well-established process for examining the fate of labeled molecules under a variety of experimental conditions both in vitro ...

Quantification of Lipid Abundance and Evaluation of Lipid Distribution in Caenorhabditis elegans by Nile Red and Oil Red O Staining

Caenorhabditis elegans is an exceptional model organism in which to study lipid metabolism and energy homeostasis. Many of its lipid genes are conserved in humans and are associated with metabolic syndrome or other diseases. Examination of lipid accumulation in this organism can be carried out by fixative dyes or label-free methods. Fixative stains like Nile red and oil red O are inexpensive, reliable ways to quantitatively measure lipid levels and to qualitatively observe lipid distribution across tissues, respectively. Moreover, these stains allow for high-throughput screening of various lipid metabolism genes and pathways. Additionally, their hydrophobic nature facilitates lipid solubility, reduces interaction with surrounding tissues, and prevents dissociation into the solvent. Though these methods are effective at examining general lipid content, they do not provide detailed information about the chemical composition and diversity of lipid deposits. For these purposes, label-free methods such as GC-MS and CARS microscopy are better suited, their costs notwithstanding.

Quantification of Lipid Abundance and Evaluation of Lipid Distribution in Caenorhabditis elegans by Nile Red and Oil Red O Staining

Nile red staining of fixed Caenorhabditis elegans is a method for quantitative measurement of neutral lipid deposits, while oil red O staining facilitates qualitative assessment of lipid distribution among tissues.

Caenorhabditis elegans is an exceptional model organism in which to study lipid metabolism and energy homeostasis. Many of its lipid genes are conserved ...

Dosimetry for Cell Irradiation using Orthovoltage (40-300 kV) X-Ray Facilities

The importance of dosimetry protocols and standards for radiobiological studies is self-evident. Several protocols have been proposed for dose determination using low energy X-ray facilities, but depending on the irradiation configurations, samples, materials or beam quality, it is sometimes difficult to know which protocol is the most appropriate to employ. We, therefore, propose a dosimetry protocol for cell irradiations using low energy X-ray facility. The aim of this method is to perform the dose estimation at the level of the cell monolayer to make it as close as possible to real cell irradiation conditions. The different steps of the protocol are as follows: determination of the irradiation parameters (high voltage, intensity, cell container etc.), determination of the beam quality index (high voltage-half value layer couple), dose rate measurement with ionization chamber calibrated in air kerma conditions, quantification of the attenuation and scattering of the cell culture medium with EBT3 radiochromic films, and determination of the dose rate at the cellular level. This methodology must be performed for each new cell irradiation configuration as the modification of only one parameter can strongly impact the real dose deposition at the level of the cell monolayer, particularly involving low energy X-rays.

Dosimetry for Cell Irradiation using Orthovoltage 40-300 kV X-Ray Facilities

This document describes a new dosimetry protocol for cell irradiations using low energy X-ray equipment. Measurements are performed in conditions simulating real cell irradiation conditions as much as possible.

The importance of dosimetry protocols and standards for radiobiological studies is self-evident. Several protocols have been proposed for dose ...

Determining the Toxicity of UV Radiation and Chemicals on Primary and Immortalized Human Corneal Epithelial Cells

This article describes the methods of measuring the toxicity of ultraviolet (UV) radiation and ocular toxins on primary (pHCEC) and immortalized (iHCEC) human corneal epithelial cell cultures. Cells were exposed to UV radiation and toxic doses of benzalkonium chloride (BAK), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS). Metabolic activity was measured using a metabolic assay. The release of inflammatory cytokines was measured using a multi-plex interleukin (IL)-1&#946;, IL-6, IL-8, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-&#945;) assay, and cells were evaluated for viability using fluorescent dyes. 
The damaging effects of UV on cell metabolic activity and cytokine release occurred at 5 min of UV exposure for iHCEC and 20 min for pHCEC. Similar percent drops in metabolic activity of the iHCEC and pHCEC occurred after exposure to BAK, H2O2, or SDS, and the most significant changes in cytokine release occurred for IL-6 and IL-8. Microscopy of fluorescently stained iHCEC and pHCEC BAK-exposed cells showed cell death at 0.005% BAK exposure, although the degree of ethidium staining was greater in the iHCECs than pHCECs. Utilizing multiple methods of assessing toxic effects using microscopy, assessments of metabolic activity, and cytokine production, the toxicity of UV radiation and chemical toxins could be determined for both primary and immortalized cell lines.

This article describes the procedures used to evaluate the toxicity of UV radiation and chemical toxins on a primary and immortalized cell line.

This article describes the methods of measuring the toxicity of ultraviolet (UV) radiation and ocular toxins on primary (pHCEC) and immortalized (iHCEC) ...