M.R. is supported by a Fonds voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek Vlaanderen (FWO) postdoctoral fellowship (133722/1204517N) and acknowledges the continuous support of the Fundaci&#243;n Cardiovascular de Colombia and the Administrative Department of Science, Technology and Innovation (Grant CT-FP44842-307-2016, project code 656671250485). M.M. is supported by an FWO doctoral fellowship (1S48018N). M.G.H. was supported by a VIB institutional grant and external support from the Thierry Latran Foundation (SOD-VIP), The Foundation for Alzheimer Research (SAO-FRA) (P#14006), the FWO (Grant 1513616N), and the European Research Council (ERC) (Starting Grant 281961 - AstroFunc; Proof of Concept Grant 713755 - AD-VIP). The authors acknowledge Jeason Haughton for his help with mouse husbandry, Stephanie Castaldo for her help performing the tail vein injections, and Caroline Eykens for providing the images of transfected HEK293T cells. M.G.H. acknowledges Michael Dunlop, Peter Hickman, and Dean Harrison.

<ol>
	<li>Daya, S., Berns, K. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gene+Therapy+Using+Adeno-Associated+Virus+Vectors.">Gene Therapy Using Adeno-Associated Virus Vectors.</a> Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 21 (4), 583-593 (2008).</li><li>Duque, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Intravenous+Administration+of+Self-complementary+AAV9+Enables+Transgene+Delivery+to+Adult+Motor+Neurons.">Intravenous Administration of Self-complementary AAV9 Enables Transgene Delivery to Adult Motor Neurons.</a> Molecular Therapy. 17 (7), 1187-1196 (2009).</li><li>Bourdenx, M., Dutheil, N., Bezard, E., Dehay, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Systemic+gene+delivery+to+the+central+nervous+system+using+Adeno-associated+virus.">Systemic gene delivery to the central nervous system using Adeno-associated virus.</a> Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience. 7, (2014).</li><li>Kantor, B., McCown, T., Leone, P., Gray, S. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Clinical+Applications+Involving+CNS+Gene+Transfer.">Clinical Applications Involving CNS Gene Transfer.</a> Advances in Genetics. 87, 71-124 (2014).</li><li>Crystal, R. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Adenovirus:+The+First+Effective+In+Vivo+Gene+Delivery+Vector.">Adenovirus: The First Effective In Vivo Gene Delivery Vector.</a> Human Gene Therapy. 25 (1), 3-11 (2014).</li><li>Weinberg, M. S., Samulski, R. J., McCown, T. 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The authors have nothing to disclose.

The production of recombinant AAV vectors described here uses materials and equipment common to most molecular biology labs and cell culture facilities. It allows the user to obtain pure, preclinical grade AAV vectors that can be used to target multiple cell and tissue types across a range of in vitro and in vivo applications. One of the greatest advantages of this protocol, compared to others (i.e., CsCl-based purification), is the shorter working time needed. Ready-to-use AAV vectors are obtainable in a maximum of 6 working days after the initial transfection of HEK293T cells.
Several factors can negatively influence the final yield or the quality of the AAV vector. Poor transfection efficiency is one of the main reasons for a low viral yield33. A major recommendation is the use of HEK293T cells that have not been passaged&#160;more than 20 times and do not have a cell confluence greater than 90% at the time of transfection21. In addition, the transfection method selected has a major impact on the results. This protocol is based on the use of PEI. PEI is a cationic polymer with the ability to deliver exogenous DNA to the cell nucleus through the generation of complexes of polymer and nucleic acid, known as polyplexes, which are taken up&#160;by the cell and trafficked via endosomes34. PEI-based transfection is easy and fast to perform, in contrast to other widely used methods, such as the co-precipitation of DNA with calcium phosphate35. Also, PEI-based transfection is much cheaper when compared to other newly introduced methods, such as the usage of cationic lipids and magnet-mediated transfection36.
The purification strategy plays a key role in the protocol. Compared to other methods, iodixanol-based purifications tend to contain a higher percentage of empty viral particles (20%)20. This is offset, to a degree, by the fact that iodixanol-based purification routinely results in AAV vector preparations with a particle-to-infectivity ratio of less than 100. This represents a significant improvement in comparison to conventional CsCl-based procedures, for which substantial loss of particle infectivity is reported37. Another common alternative method to purify AAV vectors is chromatography-based purification. However, this method has the major drawback that a specific column is required for each vector capsid used: for example, while AAV2 is classically isolated using heparin columns, this methodology does not work with AAV4 and AAV5, which do not possess heparin-binding sites on their capsids38. Considering that chromatography purification is also expensive, iodixanol-based purification is generally more suitable for laboratories that wish to produce high-quality batches of AAV vectors on a small scale33,39,40. However, to maximize the final yield and purity of the vector, extreme care is needed when making the iodixanol gradients. The various iodixanol fractions should be transferred to the ultracentrifugation tube using a sterile Pasteur pipette whose tip is touching the wall of the tube: iodixanol should be expelled from the pipette slowly and continuously. As the vector particles accumulate in the 40% iodixanol layer, care needs to be taken to ensure that the gradient interfaces do not mix20. Finally, the fraction containing the vector should be recovered by the insertion of a stainless-steel blunt needle with a gauge not larger than 20 G. To maximize vector recovery, the clear fraction should be retrieved in its entirety. During this step, timing is critical. To avoid compromising the purity of the preparation, it is essential to stop the collection before other (contaminating) phases of the gradient are collected.
Differences in the obtained vector&#160;titer can be also attributed to the intrinsic ability of the vector&#160;to produce packaged&#160;particles. A comparison between different AAV serotypes showed that some AAV vectors are more difficult to produce at a higher titer than others (e.g., AAV2)41. Precipitation of the vector, during the desalting step, can be a possible reason for a lower titer and easily prevented by avoiding overconcentration33. Moreover, it is also possible that the efficiency of iodixanol gradient-based purification slightly differs between serotypes and, therefore, discrepancies in the titer obtained with different serotypes can be observed41.
Finally, it needs to be pointed out that&#160;even though qPCR is a very accurate method for DNA quantification&#160;some inherent variability in the technique can be observed. Accuracy in the titration primarily depends on the precise pipetting and proper vortexing of all the solutions. To guarantee the most accurate titer reading, the qPCR can be independently repeated, and the obtained values averaged. The choice of primers presented in this protocol is based on the sequence of the CBA promoter located in the pTransgene plasmid used in our laboratory. The CBA promoter is a strong synthetic promoter that is widely used in the vector field to drive expression across multiple cell types. It incorporates multiple elements, including the cytomegalovirus (CMV) early enhancer element; the promoter, first exon, and the first intron of the CBA gene; and the splice acceptor of the rabbit &#946;-globin gene. However, primers can be designed for virtually any element located within the expression cassette (including the promoter, transgene, and regulatory elements). The comparison of titer across batches is also possible, providing primers are used against regions common to the vectors in question.
In conclusion, this protocol can be used to produce AAV vectors with a variety of capsids, genome configurations, promoter types&#160;and transgene cargos. This will allow users to easily adapt the final characteristics of their vectors to best suit experimental needs. In the example presented in the representative results, the use of the PHP.B capsid, which efficiently crosses the BBB, gave&#160;highly efficient gene expression in the CNS, following tail vein injection32. The systemic administration of CNS penetrant vectors has considerable advantages in terms of possible side-effects2,17,32. A possible alternative to peripheral injection, while avoiding the caveats of invasive techniques, is intrathecal delivery, which consists of&#160;delivery of the AAV vector into the cerebrospinal fluid. This delivery route is proven to be effective, showing&#160;widespread expression of transgene across the CNS, less off-target effects in peripheral organs, and low levels of immune response42. However, intrathecal injections are much more challenging, as they require higher technical skills than tail vein injection.
Further capsid development to refine this technology will be driven by the opportunities for AAV vector use in gene therapy applications. Such approaches offer attractive possibilities to treat currently incurable CNS disorders, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease,&#160;Parkinson&#8217;s and Alzheimer&#8217;s disease18.

Over the past 30 years, wild-type AAVs have been engineered to create recombinant AAV vectors, which have proven to be exceptionally useful tools for gene transfer&#160;into the CNS1,2,3,4,5,6 and gene therapy approaches to disease (including FDA- and EMA-approved therapies)4,7. Their suitability for use in the CNS largely derives from their ability to infect non-dividing, post-mitotic cells, typically found in the CNS8. However, AAV-based vectors also have the advantage of allowing a long-term expression of any given therapeutic transgene4,9 while eliciting a milder immune response compared to other viral vectors7,8,10,11,12.
The main elements of any AAV vector are the genome and the capsid. Wild-type AAVs are single-stranded (ss) DNA viruses with a genome of approximately 5 kilobases (kb)13. For the production of recombinant AAV vectors, the rep and cap genes (necessary for genome replication and the assembly of the viral capsid) are deleted from the genome of the wild-type AAV and provided in trans, leaving room for an expression cassette containing the transgene14,15. The inverted terminal repeat sequences (ITRs) of the original viral genome are the only retained elements in an AAV vector, as these are essential for replication and packaging3,10,14. AAV vectors can be engineered to enhance transgene expression; a mutation in one of the ITRs leads to the formation of a hairpin loop which effectively allows the generation of a complementary DNA strand3,7,15. The main advantage of this configuration, termed a self-complementary (sc) genome, is that it bypasses the need for&#160;second-strand synthesis typical in the conventional life cycle of AAVs, considerably increasing the speed and levels of transgene expression1. Nevertheless, using an scAAV genome reduces the cargo capacity of the vector to approximately 2.4 kb. This includes transgene sequences, as well as any regulatory sequences such as promoters or microRNA-binding sites, to limit expression to specific cell types16.
The AAV capsid determines the vector-host cell interaction and confers a degree of cell type or tissue tropism for an AAV serotype, which can also be exploited to limit transgene expression to specific locations. Several AAV serotypes are found in nature, whereas others have been produced in laboratories through recombinant approaches (i.e., PHP.B). In addition, some capsids also bestow other useful characteristics, such as the ability to cross the BBB, resulting in the delivery of transgenes throughout the CNS after systemic administration. This has been shown for AAV9, as well as for the recently described PHP.B capsid17. As a consequence, these serotypes are proving to be particularly relevant for new gene therapy approaches for&#160;neurodegenerative disorders1,17,18.
The aim of this protocol is to describe a cost-effective method for the small-scale production of AAV vectors with high titer and purity. Although the results presented here use the PHP.B capsid and a scAAV expression cassette, the protocol is suitable for the production of several AAV vector serotypes and genome configurations, allowing maximum experimental flexibility. However, the vector yield and final purity can vary depending on the chosen serotype.
The protocol itself is a variant of the classical tri-transfection method for viral vector production and incorporates the use of an iodixanol gradient for vector clean-up, which, in comparison to the classical use of cesium chloride (CsCl) gradients, has been reported to produce AAV vectors of higher purity in a more time-efficient manner19,20,21.
The transfection, purification&#160;and concentration steps are intended to be performed according to&#160;good laboratory practice (GLP) in a tissue culture laboratory rated for viral vector work. Each task needs to be performed in compliance with the relevant local and national legislation concerning viral vector production and use. Work must be carried out under a laminar flow hood and in sterile conditions. Inside the vector facility, it is recommended to wear a lab apron, in addition to the regular tissue culture lab coat. Moreover, a double pair of gloves, as well as plastic overshoes, should be worn at all times.
Before starting the vector production, ensure all necessary equipment and plasmids are available. 1) pCapsid plasmid contains the rep gene that encodes four non-structural proteins necessary for replication, namely Rep78, Rep68, Rep52, and Rep40, and the cap gene that encodes three structural capsid proteins, namely VP1, VP2, and VP3. 2) pHelper plasmid contains the genes E4, E2A, and VA from adenovirus, which facilitate AAV production in HEK293T cells. 3) pTransgene plasmid contains the transgene expression cassette, flanked by two ITRs. These plasmids can be synthesized de novo in the laboratory using sequences available online22. For plasmids made de novo, especially those containing novel transgenes, sequencing is required, to make sure that the transgene and ITRs are correct. Alternatively, premade plasmids can be directly acquired through online plasmid repositories. When necessary, plasmids can be amplified and purified using standard kits, according to the manufacturer&#39;s instructions23.
Vector titer and purity can adversely affect the transduction ability of the vector. Additional protocols are supplied to evaluate the quality of the produced vector. The final vectors will be useful for studies of the CNS cell function in both in vitro and in vivo applications.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="4">Plasmid production</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pTransgene plasmid</td>
			<td>De novo design or obtained from a plasmid repository</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>See step 1 of main protocol for further details</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pCapsid</td>
			<td>De novo design or obtained from a plasmid repository</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>See step 1 of main protocol for further details</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pHelper</td>
			<td>Agilent</td>
			<td>240071</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plasmid Plus maxi kit</td>
			<td>Qiagen</td>
			<td>12963</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>QIAquick PCR purification Kit</td>
			<td>Qiagen</td>
			<td>28104</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>AAV Helper-Free System</td>
			<td>Agilent</td>
			<td>240071</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="4">Cell culture and transfection </td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dulbecco&#8217;s Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM), high glucose, no glutamine</td>
			<td>Life technologies</td>
			<td>11960-044</td>
			<td>Supplement DMEM with FBS (1% or 10% v/v) and GlutaMAX 200 mM (1% v/v) then filter sterilize the medium using a 0.22 mm filter</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fetal bovine serum (FBS)</td>
			<td>GIBCO</td>
			<td>10500-064</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>GlutaMAX supplement</td>
			<td rowspan="2">GIBCO</td>
			<td rowspan="2">35050038</td>
			<td rowspan="2"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>(200 mM)</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Corning bottle-top vacuum filter system</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>CLS430769</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dulbecco&#8217;s Phosphate Buffered Saline (DPBS) with no calcium and no magnesium</td>
			<td>GIBCO</td>
			<td>14190094</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HEK293T cells</td>
			<td>American Tissue Culture Collection</td>
			<td>CRL3216</td>
			<td>Upon receipt, thaw the cells and culture as described in the protocol. After a minimal number of passages, freeze a subfraction for future in aliquots.&#160;Always use cells below passage number 20. Once cultured cells have been passaged more than 20 times, restart a culture from the stored aliquots</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cell culture dishes</td>
			<td>Greiner Cellstar</td>
			<td>639160</td>
			<td>15 cm diameter culture dishes</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cell scrapers</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>10062-904</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polyethylenimine (PEI)</td>
			<td>Polyscience</td>
			<td>23966-2</td>
			<td>PEI in powder form is dissolved at 1 &#181;g/&#181;L in deionized water (ddwater) at pH=2 (use HCl). Prepare in a beaker and stir for 2-3 h. When dissolved, bring the pH back to 7 with NaOH. Filter sterilize and store the resuspended stock solution in 1 ml aliquots at -20 &#176;C. PEI aliquots can freeze/thawed multiple times.</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Virkon solution</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>NC9821357</td>
			<td>Disinfect any material that has been in contact with assembled viral particles with Virkon solution</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mutexi long-sleeve aprons</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>11735423</td>
			<td>Wear an apron over the top of a regular lab coat</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fisherbrand maximum protection disposable overshoes</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>15401952</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="4">AAV Purification and desalting</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Optiprep density gradient medium</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>D1556</td>
			<td>Optiprep is a 60% (w/v) solution of iodixanol in water (sterile). CAUTION. Use under a laminar flow hood. Wear gloves</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phenol red</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P0290</td>
			<td>CAUTION. Use under a laminar flow hood</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pasteur pipette</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>Z627992</td>
			<td>Sterilize before use</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>OptiSeal Polypropylene tubes</td>
			<td>Beckman</td>
			<td>361625</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Benzonase (250 U/&#181;L)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>E1014</td>
			<td>Supplied as a ready-to-use solution</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Acrodisc syringe filter</td>
			<td>Pall corporation</td>
			<td>4614</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Omnifix syringe (5mL)</td>
			<td>Braun</td>
			<td>4617053V</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Blunt syringe needle</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>Z261378</td>
			<td>Stainless steel 316 syringe needle, pipetting blunt 90&#176; tip gauge 16, L 4 in. Referred to in the text as a blunt-end needle</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Aqua Ecotainer</td>
			<td>B. Braun</td>
			<td>0082479E</td>
			<td>Sterile endotoxin-free water. Referred to as &#39;Ultrapure water&#39;</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Amicon ultra-15 centrifugal filter unit</td>
			<td>Millipore</td>
			<td>UFC910024</td>
			<td>These filters concentrate the final product by collecting the viral particles in consecutive centrifugation steps</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pluronic F68 (100X)</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher</td>
			<td>24040032</td>
			<td>Non-ionic surfactant. Dilute in sterile PBS to use at 0,01% (v/v)</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fisherbrand Sterile Microcentrifuge Tubes with Screw Caps (2 mL)</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>02-681-374</td>
			<td>Use skirted tubes for easy handling</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="4">AAV Titration </td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td rowspan="2">Restriction enzyme: StuI (10 U/&#181;L)</td>
			<td rowspan="2">Promega</td>
			<td rowspan="2">R6421</td>
			<td rowspan="2"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DNAse I (1 U/&#181;L)</td>
			<td>Fisher scientific</td>
			<td>EN0521</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Proteinase K</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>3115852001</td>
			<td>Reconstitute in ultrapure water and use at a final concentration of 10 mg/ml. Solution can be stored at -20&#176;C</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EasyStrip Plus Tube Strips (with attached caps)</td>
			<td>Fisher scientific</td>
			<td>AB2000</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Eppendorf microtube 3810x</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>Z606340-1000EA</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LightCycler 480 SYBR Green I Master Mix</td>
			<td>Roche</td>
			<td>4707516001</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LightCycler Multiwell Plates, 96 wells</td>
			<td>Roche</td>
			<td>4729692001</td>
			<td>White polypropylene plate (with unique identifying barcode)</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microseal &#39;A&#39; PCR Plate and PCR Tube Sealing Film</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>msa5001</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="4">AAV Purity control </td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ammonium persulfate (APS)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>A3678</td>
			<td>Reconstitute in ultrapure water to 10% (v/v). CAUTION. Use under laminar flow hood. Wear gloves</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tetramethylethylenediamine (TEMED)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>T9281</td>
			<td>CAUTION. Use under a laminar flow hood. Wear gloves</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tris Base ULTROL Grade</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>648311</td>
			<td>CAUTION. Use under a laminar flow hood. Wear gloves</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>UltraPure Agarose</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher</td>
			<td>16500-500</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rotiphorese&#174; Gel 30 (37,5:1)</td>
			<td>Carl Roth</td>
			<td>3029.3</td>
			<td>Aqueous 30 % acrylamide and bisacrylamide stock solution at a ratio of 37.5:1. CAUTION. Use under laminar flow hood. Wear gloves</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Serva Blue G</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>6104-58-1</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Precision Plus prestained marker</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>1610374edu</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1-Butanol</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>B7906</td>
			<td>CAUTION. Use under a laminar flow hood. Wear gloves</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="4">Immunohistochemistry</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rabbit anti-GFP</td>
			<td>Synaptic System</td>
			<td>132002</td>
			<td>1:300 dilution</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-rabbit Alexa Fluor 488</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>A21206</td>
			<td>1:1000 dilution</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Equipment</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalog number</td>
			<td>Comments</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="3">Vector production lab</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rotina 380 bench-top centrifuge *</td>
			<td>Hettich</td>
			<td>1701</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Optima XPN 80 ultracentrifuge *</td>
			<td>Beckmann Coulter</td>
			<td>A95765</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Type 50.2 Ti fixed-angle titanium rotor *</td>
			<td>Beckmann Coulter</td>
			<td>337901</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Entris digital scale *</td>
			<td>Sartorius</td>
			<td>2202-1S</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Warm water bath *</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Set at 37&#176;C</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ice bucket *</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>10146-290</td>
			<td>Keep material used in the vector production lab separate from that used in standard lab areas</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pipetboy pro *</td>
			<td>Integra</td>
			<td>156,400</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Graduated pipettes: Cell star *</td>
			<td>Greiner bio-one</td>
			<td>606180</td>
			<td>Capacity of 5 ml, 10 ml and 25 ml</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Graduated pipettes: Cell star *</td>
			<td>Greiner bio-one</td>
			<td>607180</td>
			<td>Capacity of 5 ml, 10 ml and 25 ml</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Graduated pipettes: Cell star *</td>
			<td>Greiner bio-one</td>
			<td>760180</td>
			<td>Capacity of 5 ml, 10 ml and 25 ml</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Co2 incubator CB150 *</td>
			<td>Binder</td>
			<td>9040-0038</td>
			<td>Set at 37&#176;C, 5% CO2 and 95% humidity</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nuaire safety cabinet NU 437-400E *</td>
			<td>Labexchange</td>
			<td>31324</td>
			<td>Clean all the surfaces with 70% ethanol and Virkon before and after use</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="3">Conventional lab</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>T100 thermal cycler *</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>1861096</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LightCycler 480 Instrument II *</td>
			<td>Roche</td>
			<td>5015278001</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ThermoMixer *</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>C 5382000015</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nanodrop *</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>ND 2000</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mini-Protean Tetra Cell*</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>1658001FC</td>
			<td>For use with handmade or precast gels</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ProteoSilver silver stain kit</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>PROTSIL1</td>
			<td>High sensitivity protein detection with low background</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Centrifuge 5804 R *</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>B1_022628045</td>
			<td>High speed centrifuge for medium capacity needs (up to 250 ml)</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Graduated pipettes Cell star *</td>
			<td>Greiner bio-one</td>
			<td>606180</td>
			<td>5 ml, 10 ml and 25 ml</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Graduated pipettes Cell star *</td>
			<td>Greiner bio-one</td>
			<td>607180</td>
			<td>5 ml, 10 ml and 25 ml</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Graduated pipettes Cell star *</td>
			<td>Greiner bio-one</td>
			<td>760180</td>
			<td>5 ml, 10 ml and 25 ml</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Filter tips *</td>
			<td>Greiner bio-one</td>
			<td>750257</td>
			<td>2 &#181;l, 20 &#181;l, 200 &#181;l</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Filter tips *</td>
			<td>Greiner bio-one</td>
			<td>738257</td>
			<td>2 &#181;l, 20 &#181;l, 200 &#181;l</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Filter tips *</td>
			<td>Greiner bio-one</td>
			<td>771257</td>
			<td>2 &#181;l, 20 &#181;l, 200 &#181;l</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ice bucket with lid *</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>10146-290</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mini diaphragm vacuum pump, VP 86 *</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>181-0065</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pipetman P2, P20, P100, P200, P1000</td>
			<td>Gilson</td>
			<td>F144801</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pipetman P2, P20, P100, P200, P1000</td>
			<td>Gilson</td>
			<td>F123600</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pipetman P2, P20, P100, P200, P1000</td>
			<td>Gilson</td>
			<td>F123615</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pipetman P2, P20, P100, P200, P1000</td>
			<td>Gilson</td>
			<td>F123601</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pipetman P2, P20, P100, P200, P1000</td>
			<td>Gilson</td>
			<td>F123602</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="4">* Materials marked with an asterisk are expensive vpieces of equipment and are usually central infrastructure items shared between multiple labs. These items can also be replaced by equivalents if available. Note, when a different ultracentrifuge is used, care must be taken to select the correct rotor and centrifuge tubes.</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

production, purification, and quality control for adeno-associated virus-based vectors

Gene delivery tools based on adeno-associated viruses (AAVs) are a popular choice for the delivery of transgenes to the central nervous system (CNS), including gene therapy applications. AAV vectors are non-replicating, able to infect both dividing and non-dividing cells&#160;and provide long-term transgene expression. Importantly, some serotypes, such as the newly described PHP.B, can cross the blood-brain-barrier (BBB) in animal models, following systemic delivery. AAV vectors can be efficiently produced in the laboratory. However, robust and reproducible protocols are required to obtain AAV vectors with sufficient purity levels and titer values high enough for in vivo applications. This protocol describes an efficient and reproducible strategy for AAV vector production, based on an iodixanol gradient purification strategy. The iodixanol purification method is suitable for obtaining batches of high-titer AAV vectors of high purity, when compared to other purification methods. Furthermore, the protocol is generally faster than other methods currently described. In addition, a quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR)-based strategy is described for a fast and accurate determination of the vector titer, as well as a silver staining method to determine the purity of the vector batch. Finally, representative results of gene delivery to the CNS, following systemic administration of AAV-PHP.B, are presented. Such results should be possible in all labs using the protocols described in this article.

AAV9 was considered, until recently, to be the most effective AAV vector serotype in crossing the BBB and transducing cells of the CNS, following peripheral administration. A significant advance in capsid design was achieved when Deverman et al. reported the use of a capsid selection method called Cre recombination-based AAV-targeted evolution (CREATE)17. Using this method, they identified a new capsid, named PHP.B, which they reported as able to transduce the majority of astrocytes and neurons in multiple CNS regions, following systemic injection17. At this point, it should be noted that even though PHP.B provides positive results in C57/Bl6 mice (which was the strain used in the initial isolation experiments), preliminary reports suggest its efficiency may vary in a strain-dependent manner. Further experiments will, no doubt, shed more light on this issue31.
However, despite these issues, PHP.B offers exciting possibilities for noninvasive gene manipulation in the CNS of mice, including proof-of-concept gene therapy experiments in disease models. As such, we chose to evaluate the efficiency of transgene expression using PHP.B versus AAV9, which has been the &#39;gold-standard&#39; vector for CNS transduction following peripheral administration since 20092. To perform a direct comparison of both serotypes, under optimal conditions for transgene expression, we used an sc genome configuration32. Both vectors carried the transgene for green fluorescent protein (GFP) under the control of the ubiquitous chicken &#946;-actin (CBA) promoter. Female C57/Bl6 mice at postnatal day 42 (approximately 20 g in weight) received a dose of 1 x 1012 vg per mouse of either scAAV2/PHP.B-CBA-GFP or scAAV2/9-CBA-GFP. Vector administration was performed via tail vein injection. The experiments were approved by the Ethical Committee of the KU Leuven.
Three weeks postinjection, the mice underwent transcardial perfusion with ice-cold PBS, followed by 4% (w/v) ice-cold paraformaldehyde (PFA). Their brains were harvested and underwent further postfixation by an overnight incubation in the same fixative, before transferring to 0.01% (w/v) Na-azide/PBS for storage until further analysis. Afterward, the brains were sectioned using a vibrating microtome, and immunohistochemistry was performed on 50 &#181;m thick sections.
To evaluate the levels of transgene expression, sections were stained with primary antibodies against GFP (rabbit anti-GFP), with detection using secondary antibodies conjugated to a fluorescent dye (anti-rabbit Alexa Fluor 488) (Figure 4A, B). Fluorescence intensity measurements (in arbitrary units [au]) confirmed a significant increase in GFP expression when an sc genome and the PHP.B capsid were used relative to AAV9. Increases in GFP were observed in the cerebrum (2105 &#177; 161 vs. 1441 &#177; 99 au; p = 0.0032), the cerebellum (2601 &#177; 196 vs. 1737 &#177; 135 au; p = 0.0032), and the brainstem (3082 &#177; 319 vs. 2485 &#177; 88 au; p = 0.0038) (Figure 4C).
<img alt="Figure 4" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/58960/58960fig4.jpg" /> 
Figure 4: Systemic delivery of scAAV2/PHP.B-CBA-GFP leads to a high GFP expression in the CNS. scAAV2/PHP.B-CBA-GFP or scAAV2/9-CBA-GFP (1 x 1012 vg/mouse) was administered to 6-weeks-old C57/Bl6 mice via tail vein injection. GFP was detected using immunohistochemistry on coronal brain sections 3 weeks postinjection. (A) The cerebrum and (B) the cerebellum and brainstem are shown. Scale bars = 1 mm. (C) The quantification of relative fluorescence intensities was performed to determine the levels of GFP signal achieved with each vector (10 sections per mouse; three mice per vector group). A one-way ANOVA test was performed, followed by a two-tailed Student&#39;s t-test; the data are expressed as mean &#177; standard deviation; **p &#60; 0.01; au. arbitrary units. pCapsid, used for AAV vector production, contains the gene rep from serotype 2 and the gene cap from serotype PHP.B or AAV9, accordingly. This figure has been modified from Rincon et al.32. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/58960/58960fig4large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Production, Purification, and Quality Control for Adeno-associated Virus-based Vectors at JoVE.com

Production, Purification, and Quality Control for Adeno-associated Virus-based Vectors

Here, we describe an efficient and reproducible strategy to produce, titer, and quality-control batches of adeno-associated virus vectors. It allows the user to obtain a vector preparation with high-titer&#160;(&#8805;1 x 1013 vector genomes/mL) and a high purity, ready for in vitro or in vivo use.

Gene delivery tools based on adeno-associated viruses (AAVs) are a popular choice for the delivery of transgenes to the central nervous system (CNS), ...

production-purification-quality-control-for-adeno-associated-virus

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JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

35.6K Views.  VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain and Disease Research. Here, we describe an efficient and reproducible strategy to produce, titer, and quality-control batches of adeno-associated virus vectors. It allows the user to obtain a vector preparation with high-titer (≥1 x 1013 vector genomes/mL) and a high purity, ready for in vitro or in vivo use.

Video: Production, Purification, and Quality Control for Adeno-associated Virus-based Vectors

Production of Lentiviral Vectors for Transducing Cells from the Central Nervous System

Efficient gene delivery in the central nervous system (CNS) is important in studying gene functions, modeling neurological diseases and developing therapeutic approaches. Lentiviral vectors are attractive tools in transduction of neurons and other cell types in CNS as they transduce both dividing and non-dividing cells, support sustained expression of transgenes, and have relatively large packaging capacity and low toxicity 1-3. Lentiviral vectors have been successfully used in transducing many neural cell types in vitro 4-6 and in animals 7-10.
Great efforts have been made to develop lentiviral vectors with improved biosafety and efficiency for gene delivery. The current third generation replication-defective and self-inactivating (SIN) lentiviral vectors are depicted in Figure 1. The required elements for vector packaging are split into four plasmids. In the lentiviral transfer plasmid, the U3 region in the 5' long terminal repeat (LTR) is replaced with a strong promoter from another virus. This modification allows the transcription of the vector sequence independent of HIV-1 Tat protein that is normally required for HIV gene expression 11. The packaging signal (&Psi;) is essential for encapsidation and the Rev-responsive element (RRE) is required for producing high titer vectors. The central polypurine tract (cPPT) is important for nuclear import of the vector DNA, a feature required for transducing non-dividing cells 12. In the 3' LTR, the cis-regulatory sequences are completely removed from the U3 region. This deletion is copied to 5' LTR after reverse transcription, resulting in transcriptional inactivation of both LTRs. Plasmid pMDLg/pRRE contains HIV-1 gag/pol genes, which provide structural proteins and reverse transcriptase. pRSV-Rev encodes Rev which binds to the RRE for efficient RNA export from the nucleus. pCMV-G encodes the vesicular stomatitis virus glycoprotein (VSV-G) that replaces HIV-1 Env. VSV-G expands the tropism of the vectors and allows concentration via ultracentrifugation 13. All the genes encoding the accessory proteins, including Vif, Vpr, Vpu, and Nef are excluded in the packaging system. The production and manipulation of lentiviral vectors should be carried out according to NIH guidelines for research involving recombinant DNA (<a href="http://oba.od.nih.gov/oba/rac/Guidelines/NIH_Guidelines.pdf" target="_blank">http://oba.od.nih.gov/oba/rac/Guidelines/NIH_Guidelines.pdf</a>). An approval from individual Institutional Biological and Chemical Safety Committee may be required before using lentiviral vectors. Lentiviral vectors are commonly produced by cotransfection of 293T cells with lentiviral transfer plasmid and the helper plasmids encoding the proteins required for vector packaging. Many lentiviral transfer plasmids and helper plasmids can be obtained from Addgene, a non-profit plasmid repository (<a href="http://www.addgene.org/" target="_blank">http://www.addgene.org/</a>). Some stable packaging cell lines have been developed, but these systems provide less flexibility and their packaging efficiency generally declines over time 14, 15. Commercially available transfection kits may support high efficiency of transfection 16, but they can be very expensive for large scale vector preparations. Calcium phosphate precipitation methods provide highly efficient transfection of 293T cells and thus provide a reliable and cost effective approach for lentiviral vector production.
In this protocol, we produce lentiviral vectors by cotransfection of 293T cells with four plasmids based on the calcium phosphate precipitation principle, followed by purification and concentration with ultracentrifugation through a 20% sucrose cushion. The vector titers are determined by fluorescence- activated cell sorting (FACS) analysis or by real time qPCR. The production and titration of lentiviral vectors in this protocol can be finished with 9 days. We provide an example of transducing these vectors into murine neocortical cultures containing both neurons and astrocytes. We demonstrate that lentiviral vectors support high efficiency of transduction and cell type-specific gene expression in primary cultured cells from CNS.

In this protocol we describe production, purification and titration of lentiviral vectors. We provide an example of lentiviral vector-mediated gene delivery in primary cultured neurons and astrocytes. Our methods may also apply to other cell types in vitro and in vivo.

Efficient gene delivery in the central nervous system (CNS) is important in studying gene functions, modeling neurological diseases and developing ...

Subpial Adeno-associated Virus 9 (AAV9) Vector Delivery in Adult Mice

The successful development of a subpial adeno-associated virus 9 (AAV9) vector delivery technique in adult rats and pigs has been reported on previously. Using subpially-placed polyethylene catheters (PE-10 or PE-5) for AAV9 delivery, potent transgene expression through the spinal parenchyma (white and gray matter) in subpially-injected spinal segments has been demonstrated. Because of the wide range of transgenic mouse models of neurodegenerative diseases, there is a strong desire for the development of a potent central nervous system (CNS)-targeted vector delivery technique in adult mice. Accordingly, the present study describes the development of a spinal subpial vector delivery device and technique to permit safe and effective spinal AAV9 delivery in adult C57BL/6J mice. In spinally immobilized and anesthetized mice, the pia mater (cervical 1 and lumbar 1-2 spinal segmental level) was incised with a sharp 34 G needle using an XYZ manipulator. A second XYZ manipulator was then used to advance a blunt 36G needle into the lumbar and/or cervical subpial space. The AAV9 vector (3-5 &#181;L; 1.2 x 1013 genome copies (gc)) encoding green fluorescent protein (GFP) was then injected subpially. After injections, neurological function (motor and sensory) was assessed periodically, and animals were perfusion-fixed 14 days after AAV9 delivery with 4% paraformaldehyde. Analysis of horizontal or transverse spinal cord sections showed transgene expression throughout the entire spinal cord, in both gray and white matter. In addition, intense retrogradely-mediated GFP expression was seen in the descending motor axons and neurons in the motor cortex, nucleus ruber, and formatio reticularis. No neurological dysfunction was noted in any animals. These data show that the subpial vector delivery technique can successfully be used in adult mice, without causing procedure-related spinal cord injury, and is associated with highly potent transgene expression throughout the spinal neuraxis.

Subpial Adeno-associated Virus 9 AAV9 Vector Delivery in Adult Mice

The goal of the present study was to develop and validate the potency and safety of spinal adeno-associated virus 9 (AAV9)-mediated gene delivery by using a novel subpial gene delivery technique in adult mice.

The successful development of a subpial adeno-associated virus 9 (AAV9) vector delivery technique in adult rats and pigs has been reported on previously. ...

Methods and Tips for Intravenous Administration of Adeno-associated Virus to Rats and Evaluation of Central Nervous System Transduction

Adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors are a key reagent in the neurosciences for clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR), optogenetics, cre-lox targeting, etc. The purpose of this manuscript is to aid the investigator attempting expansive central nervous system (CNS) gene transfer in the rat via tail vein injection of AAV. Wide-scale expression is relevant for conditions with widespread pathology, and a rat model is significant due to its greater size and physiologic similarities to humans compared to mice. In this example application, a wide-scale neuronal transduction is used to mimic a neurodegenerative disease that affects the entire spinal cord, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). The efficient wide-scale CNS transduction can also be used to deliver therapeutic protein factors in pre-clinical studies. After a post-injection expression interval of several weeks, the effects of the transduction are evaluated. For a green fluorescent protein (GFP) control vector, the amount of GFP in the cerebellum is estimated quickly and reliably by a basic imaging program. For motor disease phenotypes that are induced by the ALS related protein transactive response DNA-binding protein of 43 kDa (TDP-43), the deficits are scored by escape reflex and rotarod. Beyond disease modeling and gene therapy, there are diverse potential applications for the wide-scale gene targeting described here. The expanded use of this method will aid in expediting hypothesis testing in the neurosciences and neurogenetics.

Methods for a wide-scale central nervous system gene delivery in the rat are covered. In this example, the purpose is to mimic a disease that affects the entire spinal cord. The widespread transduction can be used to deliver a therapeutic protein to the CNS from a one-time, peripheral administration.

Adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors are a key reagent in the neurosciences for clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR), ...

Visualization and Live Imaging of Oligodendrocyte Organelles in Organotypic Brain Slices Using Adeno-associated Virus and Confocal Microscopy

Neurons rely on the electric insulation and trophic support of myelinating oligodendrocytes. Despite the importance of oligodendrocytes, the advanced tools currently used to study neurons, have only partly been taken on by oligodendrocyte researchers. Cell type-specific staining by viral transduction is a useful approach to study live organelle dynamics. This paper describes a protocol for visualizing oligodendrocyte mitochondria in organotypic brain slices by transduction with adeno-associated virus (AAV) carrying genes for mitochondrial targeted fluorescent proteins under the transcriptional control of the myelin basic protein promoter. It includes the protocol for making organotypic coronal mouse brain slices. A procedure for time-lapse imaging of mitochondria then follows. These methods can be transferred to other organelles and may be particularly useful for studying organelles in the myelin sheath. Finally, we describe a readily available technique for visualization of unstained myelin in living slices by Confocal Reflectance microscopy (CoRe). CoRe requires no extra equipment and can be useful to identify the myelin sheath during live imaging.

Myelinating oligodendrocytes promote rapid action potential propagation and neuronal survival. Described here is a protocol for oligodendrocyte-specific expression of fluorescent proteins in organotypic brain slices with subsequent time-lapse imaging. Further, a simple procedure for visualizing unstained myelin is presented.

Neurons rely on the electric insulation and trophic support of myelinating oligodendrocytes. Despite the importance of oligodendrocytes, the advanced ...

An In Ovo Model for Testing Insulin-mimetic Compounds

Elevated blood glucose levels in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), a complex and multifactorial metabolic disease, are caused by insulin resistance and &#946;-cell failure. Various strategies, including the injection of insulin or the usage of insulin-sensitizing drugs, were pursued to treat T2DM or at least reduce the symptoms. In addition, the application of herbal compounds has attracted increasing attention. Thus, it is necessary to find efficient test systems to identify and characterize insulin-mimetic compounds. Here we developed a modified chick embryo model, which enables testing of synthetic compounds and herbal extracts with insulin-mimetic properties. Using a fluorescence microscopy-based primary screen, which quantifies the translocation of Glucose transporter 4 (Glut4) to the plasma membrane, we were able to identify compounds, mainly herbal extracts, which lead to an increase of intracellular glucose concentrations in adipocytes. However, the efficacy of these substances requires further verification in a living organism. Thus, we used an in-ovo approach to identify their blood glucose-reducing properties. The approval by an ethics committee is not needed since the use of chicken embryos during the first two-thirds of embryonic development is not considered an animal experiment. Here, the application of this model is described in detail.

An In Ovo Model for Testing Insulin-mimetic Compounds

In this study, we describe an in-ovo system as a promising tool to test insulin-mimetic compounds in a living organism. The main advantages include adequate throughput rates and acceptable costs, which enable the identification of phytochemicals with insulin-mimetic properties.

Elevated blood glucose levels in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), a complex and multifactorial metabolic disease, are caused by insulin resistance and ...

Adeno-associated Virus-mediated Transgene Expression in Genetically Defined Neurons of the Spinal Cord

Selective manipulation of spinal neuronal subpopulations has mainly been achieved by two different methods: 1) Intersectional genetics, whereby double or triple transgenic mice are generated in order to achieve selective expression of a reporter or effector gene (e.g., from the Rosa26 locus) in the desired spinal population. 2) Intraspinal injection of Cre-dependent recombinant adeno-associated virus (rAAV); here Cre-dependent AAV vectors coding for the reporter or effector gene of choice are injected into the spinal cord of mice expressing Cre recombinase in the desired neuronal subpopulation. This protocol describes how to generate Cre-dependent rAAV vectors and how to transduce neurons in the dorsal horn of the lumbar spinal cord segments L3-L5 with rAAVs. As the lumbar spinal segments L3-L5 are innervated by those peripheral sensory neurons that transmit sensory information from the hindlimbs, spontaneous behavior and responses to sensory tests applied to the hindlimb ipsilateral to the injection side can be analyzed in order to interrogate the function of the manipulated neurons in sensory processing. We provide examples of how this technique can be used to analyze genetically defined subsets of spinal neurons. The main advantages of virus-mediated transgene expression in Cre transgenic mice compared to classical reporter mouse-induced transgene expression are the following: 1) Different Cre-dependent rAAVs encoding various reporter or effector proteins can be injected into a single Cre transgenic line, thus overcoming the need to create several multiple transgenic mouse lines. 2) Intraspinal injection limits manipulation of Cre-expressing cells to the injection site and to the time after injection. The main disadvantages are: 1) Reporter gene expression from rAAVs is more variable. 2) Surgery is required to transduce the spinal neurons of interest. Which of the two methods is more appropriate depends on the neuron population and research question to be addressed.

Intraspinal injection of recombinase dependent recombinant adeno-associated virus (rAAV) can be used to manipulate any genetically labelled cell type in the spinal cord. Here we describe how to transduce neurons in the dorsal horn of the lumbar spinal cord. This technique enables functional interrogation of the manipulated neuron subtype.

Selective manipulation of spinal neuronal subpopulations has mainly been achieved by two different methods: 1) Intersectional genetics, whereby double or ...

Direct Intrathecal Injection of Recombinant Adeno-associated Viruses in Adult Mice

Intrathecal (IT) injection of adeno-associated virus (AAV) has drawn considerable interest in CNS gene therapy by virtue of its safety, noninvasiveness, and excellent transduction efficacy in the CNS.&#160;Previous studies have demonstrated the therapeutic potency of AAV-delivered gene therapy in neurodegenerative disorders by IT administration. However, high rates of unpredictable failure due to the technical limitation of IT administration in small animals have been reported. Here, we established a scoring system to indicate the success extent of lumbar puncture in small animals by adding 1% lidocaine hydrochloride into the injection solution. We further show that the extent of transient weakness following injection can predict the transduction efficiency of AAV. Thus, this IT injection method can be used to optimize therapeutic trials in mouse models of CNS diseases that afflict wide regions of the CNS.

Here we present a direct intrathecal injection technique using 1% lidocaine hydrochloride in a viral solution to ensure efficient adeno-associated virus delivery to small animals and establish a scoring system to predict transduction efficiency in the central nervous system according to the degree of transient weakness induced by lidocaine.

Intrathecal (IT) injection of adeno-associated virus (AAV) has drawn considerable interest in CNS gene therapy by virtue of its safety, noninvasiveness, ...

Convection Enhanced Delivery of Optogenetic Adeno-associated Viral Vector to the Cortex of Rhesus Macaque Under Guidance of Online MRI Images

In non-human primate (NHP) optogenetics, infecting large cortical areas with viral vectors is often a difficult and time-consuming task. Here, we demonstrate the use of magnetic resonance (MR)-guided convection enhanced delivery (CED) of optogenetic viral vectors into primary somatosensory (S1) and motor (M1) cortices of macaques to obtain efficient, widespread cortical expression of light-sensitive ion channels. Adeno-associated viral (AAV) vectors encoding the red-shifted opsin C1V1 fused to yellow fluorescent protein (EYFP) were injected into the cortex of rhesus macaques under MR-guided CED. Three months post-infusion, epifluorescent imaging confirmed large regions of optogenetic expression (&#62;130 mm2) in M1 and S1 in two macaques. Furthermore, we were able to record reliable light-evoked electrophysiology responses from the expressing areas using micro-electrocorticographic arrays. Later histological analysis and immunostaining against the reporter revealed widespread and dense optogenetic expression in M1 and S1 corresponding to the distribution indicated by epifluorescent imaging. This technique enables us to obtain expression across large areas of the cortex within a shorter period of time with minimal damage compared to the traditional techniques and can be an optimal approach for optogenetic viral delivery in large animals such as NHPs. This approach demonstrates great potential for network-level manipulation of neural circuits with cell-type specificity in animal models evolutionarily close to humans.&#160;

Here, we demonstrate magnetic resonance (MR)-guided convection enhanced delivery (CED) of viral vectors into the cortex as an efficient and simplified approach for achieving optogenetic expression across large cortical areas in the macaque brain.

In non-human primate (NHP) optogenetics, infecting large cortical areas with viral vectors is often a difficult and time-consuming task. Here, we ...

WheelCon: A Wheel Control-Based Gaming Platform for Studying Human Sensorimotor Control

Feedback control theory has been extensively implemented to theoretically model human sensorimotor control. However, experimental platforms capable of manipulating important components of multiple feedback loops lack development. This paper describes WheelCon, an open-source platform aimed at resolving such insufficiencies. Using only a computer, a standard display, and inexpensive gaming steering wheel equipped with a force feedback motor, WheelCon safely simulates the canonical sensorimotor task of riding a mountain bike down a steep, twisting, bumpy trail. The platform provides flexibility, as will be demonstrated in the demos provided, so that researchers may manipulate the disturbances, delay, and quantization (data rate) in the layered feedback loops, including a high-level advanced plan layer and a low-level delayed reflex layer. In this paper, we illustrate WheelCon&#39;s graphical user interface (GUI), the input and output of existing demos, and how to design new games. In addition, we present the basic feedback model and the experimental results from the demo games, which align well with the model&#39;s prediction. The WheelCon platform can be downloaded at https://github.com/Doyle-Lab/WheelCon. In short, the platform is featured to be cheap, simple to use, and flexible to program for effective sensorimotor neuroscience research and control engineering education.

WheelCon is a novel, free and open-source platform to design video games that noninvasively simulates mountain biking down a steep, twisting, bumpy trail. It contains components presenting in human sensorimotor control (delay, quantization, noise, disturbance, and multiple feedback loops) and allows researchers to study the layered architecture in sensorimotor control.

Feedback control theory has been extensively implemented to theoretically model human sensorimotor control. However, experimental platforms capable of ...

Electrocorticographic Recording of Cerebral Cortex Areas Manipulated Using an Adeno-Associated Virus Targeting Cofilin in Mice

The use of electrocorticographic (ECoG) recordings in rodents is relevant to sleep research and to the study of a wide range of neurological conditions. Adeno-associated viruses (AAVs) are increasingly used to improve understanding of brain circuits and their functions. The AAV-mediated manipulation of specific cell populations and/or of precise molecular components has been tremendously useful to identify new sleep regulatory circuits/molecules and key proteins contributing to the adverse effects of sleep loss. For instance, inhibiting activity of the filamentous actin-severing protein&#160;cofilin&#160;using AAV prevents sleep deprivation-induced memory impairment. Here, a protocol is&#160;described that combines the manipulation of cofilin function in a cerebral cortex area with the recording of ECoG activity to examine whether cortical cofilin modulates the wakefulness and sleep ECoG signals. AAV injection is performed during the same surgical procedure as the implantation of ECoG and electromyographic (EMG) electrodes in adult male and female mice. Mice are anesthetized, and their heads are shaved. After skin cleaning and incision, stereotaxic coordinates of the motor cortex are determined, and the skull is pierced at this location. A cannula prefilled with an AAV expressing cofilinS3D, an inactive form of cofilin, is slowly positioned in the cortical tissue. After AAV infusion, gold-covered screws (ECoG electrodes) are screwed through the skull and cemented to the skull with gold wires inserted in the neck muscles (EMG electrodes). The animals are allowed three weeks to recover and to ensure sufficient expression of cofilinS3D. The infected area and cell type are verified using immunohistochemistry, and the ECoG is analyzed using visual identification of vigilance states and spectral analysis. In summary, this combined methodological approach allows the investigation of the precise contribution of molecular components regulating neuronal morphology and connectivity to the regulation of synchronized cerebral cortex activity during wakefulness and sleep.

This article describes a protocol for the manipulation of molecular targets in the cerebral cortex using adeno-associated viruses and for monitoring the effects of this manipulation during wakefulness and sleep using electrocorticographic recordings.

The use of electrocorticographic (ECoG) recordings in rodents is relevant to sleep research and to the study of a wide range of neurological conditions. ...