This study was supported by Fondi Ricerca di Ateneo (FRA)2015-2016, University of Sannio.

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Sample preparation
Sample preparation is the first critical step in IHC. A reliable protocol allows for maintenance of cell morphology, tissue architecture, and antigenicity. This step requires correct tissue collection, fixation, and sectioning22,23. The purpose of fixation is to preserve tissue and reduce the action of tissue enzymes or microorganisms. In particular, the fixation step preserves cellular compon...

Immunohistochemistry (IHC) is a well-established classic technique used to identify cellular or tissue components (antigens) by antigen-antibody interaction1,2. It can be used to identify the localization and distribution of target biomolecules within a tissue. IHC uses immunological and chemical reactions to detect antigens in tissue sections3. The main markers used for the visualization of antigen-antibody interactions include fluorescent dyes (immunofluorescence) and enzyme-substrate color reactions (immunoperoxidase), both conjugated to antibodies4. Using microscopic observation is possible to determine the localization of labeled tissue, which approximately corresponds to localization of the target antigen in the tissue.
Two methods exist for fluorescent or chromogenic reactions to detect protein: the direct detection method, in which the specific primary antibody is directly labeled; and the indirect detection method, in which the primary antibody is unconjugated while the secondary antibody carries the label5,6,7. The indirect method has some advantages, which is mainly its signal amplification. Moreover, unlike other molecular and cellular techniques, with immunofluorescence, it is possible to visualize the distribution, localization, and coexpression of two or more proteins differentially expressed within cells and tissues7. The choice of the detection method used depends on experimental details.
To date, IHC is widely used in basic research as a powerful and essential tool to understanding the distribution and localization of biomarkers and the general profiling of different proteins in biological tissue from human to invertebrates8,9,10,11. The technique helps display a map of protein expression in a large number of normal and altered animal organs and different tissue types, showing possible down- or up-regulation of expression induced by physiological and pathological changes. IHC is a highly sensitive technique that requires accuracy and the correct choice of methods to obtain optimal results12. First of all, many different factors such as fixation, cross-reactivity, antigen retrieval, and sensitivity of antibodies can lead to false positive and false negative signals13. Selection of the antibodies is one of the most important steps in IHC and depends on the antigen specificity and its affinity to the protein and species under investigation7.
Recently, we have optimized the IHC technique to detect members of orexin/hypocretin and endocannabinoid systems in adult zebrafish tissue. We have focused mainly on fixation, tissue embedding using two different approaches, sectioning and mounting (which can affect resolution and detail during microscopic analysis), and blocking (to prevent false positives and reduce background)14. Other important characteristics are the antibody specificity and selectivity and reproducibility of individual IHC protocols. The key to providing antibody specificity is the use of negative controls (including no primary antibodies or tissue that is known to not express the target proteins) as well as positive controls (including tissue that is known to express the target proteins)15. The selection of antibodies for IHC is made based on their species-specificity (the likelihood with which they react with the antigen of interest) and the antigen-antibody binding detection systems that is used4,5,6,7. In the case of immunoperoxidase, the color of the reaction is determined by selection of the precipitating chromogen, usually diaminobenzidine (brown)16. On the other hand, immunofluorescence utilizes antibodies conjugated with a fluorophor to visualize protein expression in frozen tissue sections and allows for easy analysis of multiple proteins with respect to the chromogenic detection system5,7.
In the immunoperoxidase technique, the secondary antibody is conjugated to biotin, a linker molecule capable of recruiting a chromogenic reporter molecule [avidin-biotin complex (ABC)], leading to amplification of the staining signal. With the ABC reporter method, the enzyme peroxidase reacts with 3,3&#8217;-diaminobenzidine (DAB), producing an intensely brown-colored staining where the enzyme binds to the secondary antibody, which can then be analyzed with an ordinary light microscope. ABC staining, due to the high affinity of avidin for biotin, produces a rapid and optimal reaction, with few secondary antibodies attached to the site of the primary antibody reactivity. This chromogenic detection method allows for the densitometric analysis of the signal, providing semi-quantitative data based on the correlation of brown signal levels with protein expression levels18.
With immunofluorescence techniques, simultaneous detection of multiple proteins is possible due to the ability of different fluorochromes to emit light at unique wavelengths, but is important to choose fluorochromes carefully to minimize spectral overlap5. Moreover, the use of primary antibodies in different host species minimizes difficulties concerning cross-reactivity. In this case, each species-specific secondary antibody recognizes only one type of primary antibody. Fluorescent reporters are small organic molecules, including commercial derivatives, such as Alexa Fluor dyes.
Many animal models are used to understand particular physiological and pathological conditions. To date, it is established that many metabolic pathways are conserved over the course of evolution. Therefore, IHC studies in model organisms such as zebrafish can provide insight into the genesis and maintenance of pathological and non-pathological conditions17. It is an aim of this report to illustrate IHC protocols that can be performed on adult zebrafish tissue and used to obtain detailed images of the distribution and localization of OXA, OX-2R, and CB1R at peripheral and central levels. Also reported are protocols for the application of two major IHC indirect methods in peripheral and central tissues of adult zebrafish. Described is the indirect method, which allows for signal amplification in cases where a secondary antibody is conjugated to a fluorescent dye (immunofluorescence method) or enzyme reporter (immunoperoxidase method). Both chromogenic and fluorescent detection methods possess advantages and disadvantages. Reported in this protocol is the use of IHC, mainly immunofluorescence, in adult zebrafish, an animal model widely used to study systems that are evolutionary conserved across different physiological and pathological conditions.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti CB1</td>
			<td>Abcam</td>
			<td>ab23703</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti OX-2R</td>
			<td>Santa Cruz</td>
			<td>sc-8074</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-OXA</td>
			<td>Santa Cruz</td>
			<td>sc8070</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Aquatex</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>1,085,620,050</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Biotinylated rabbit anti-goat</td>
			<td>Vector Lab</td>
			<td>BA-5000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>citric acid</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>251275</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Confocal microscope</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td>Nikon Eclipse Ti2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cryostat</td>
			<td>Leica Biosystem</td>
			<td>CM3050S</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DAPI</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>32670</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Digital Camera</td>
			<td>Leica Biosystem</td>
			<td>DFC320</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Digital Camera for confocal microscope</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td>DS-Qi2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Donkey anti goat Alexa fluor 488-conjugated secondary antibodies</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher</td>
			<td>A11055</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Donkey anti goat Alexa fluor 594-conjugated secondary antibodies</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher</td>
			<td>A11058</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Donkey anti rabbit Alexa fluor 488-conjugated secondary antibodies</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher</td>
			<td>A21206</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Donkey anti rabbit Alexa fluor 594-conjugated secondary antibodies</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher</td>
			<td>A21207</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethanol absolute</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>20,821,330</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Frozen section compound</td>
			<td>Leica Biosystem</td>
			<td>FSC 22 Frozen Section Media</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>H2O2</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>31642</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HCl</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>20,252,290</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ImmPACT DAB</td>
			<td>Vector lab</td>
			<td>SK4105</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microscope</td>
			<td>Leica Biosystem</td>
			<td>DMI6000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microtome</td>
			<td>Leica Biosystem</td>
			<td>RM2125RT</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Na2HPO4</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>S9763</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaCl</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>S7653</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaH2PO4H2O</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>S9638</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaOH</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>S8045</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Normal Donkey Serum</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>D9663</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Normal Rabbit Serum</td>
			<td>Vector lab</td>
			<td>S-5000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>paraffin wax</td>
			<td>Carlo Erba</td>
			<td>46793801</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Paraphormaldeyde</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>P6148</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>sodium citrate dihydrate</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>W302600</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Triton X-100</td>
			<td>Fluka Analytical</td>
			<td>93420</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trizma</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>T1503</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>VectaStain Elite ABC Kit</td>
			<td>Vector lab</td>
			<td>PK6100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Xylene Pure</td>
			<td>Carlo Erba</td>
			<td>392603</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

identification of orexin and endocannabinoid receptors in adult zebrafish using immunoperoxidase and immunofluorescence methods

Immunohistochemistry (IHC) is a highly sensitive and specific technique involved in the detection of target antigens in tissue sections with labeled antibodies. It is a multistep process in which the optimization of each step is crucial to obtain the optimum specific signal. Through IHC, the distribution and localization of specific biomarkers can be detected, revealing information on evolutionary conservation. Moreover, IHC allows for the understanding of expression and distribution changes of biomarkers in pathological conditions, such as obesity. IHC, mainly the immunofluorescence technique, can be used in adult zebrafish to detect the organization and distribution of phylogenetically conserved molecules, but a standard IHC protocol is not estasblished. Orexin and endocannabinoid are two highly conserved systems involved in the control of food intake and obesity pathology. Reported here are protocols used to obtain information about orexin peptide (OXA), orexin receptor (OX-2R), and cannabinoid receptor (CB1R) localization and distribution in the gut and brain of normal and diet-induced obese (DIO) adult zebrafish models. Also described are methods for immunoperoxidase and double immunofluorescence, as well as preparation of reagents, fixation, paraffin-embedding, and cryoprotection of zebrafish tissue and preparation for an endogenous activity-blocking step and background counterstaining. The complete set of parameters is obtained from previous IHC experiments, through which we have shown how immunofluorescence can help with the understanding of OXs, OX-2R, and CB1R distribution, localization, and conservation of expression in adult zebrafish tissues. The resulting images with highly specific signal intensity led to the confirmation that zebrafish are suitable animal models for immunohistochemical studies of distribution, localization, and evolutionary conservation of specific biomarkers in physiological and pathological conditions. The protocols presented here are recommended for IHC experiments in adult zebrafish.

Representative data for the immunoperoxidase staining are shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2. Immunohistochemical analysis of OX-A and OX-2R distribution in the gut of adult zebrafish showed different localization sites of OX-A and OX-2R and their increases in expression in the intestinal cells of DIO zebrafish. An intense brown staining for OX-A was observed in the cells of the medial and anterior intestine (Figure 1A, A1). ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Identification of Orexin and Endocannabinoid Receptors in Adult Zebrafish Using Immunoperoxidase and Immunofluorescence Methods at JoVE.com

Identification of Orexin and Endocannabinoid Receptors in Adult Zebrafish Using Immunoperoxidase and Immunofluorescence Methods

Presented here are protocols for immunohistochemical characterization and localization of orexin peptide, orexin receptors, and endocannabinoid receptors in the gut and brains of normal and diet-induced obesity (DIO) adult zebrafish models using immunoperixidase and double immunofluorescence methods.

Immunohistochemistry (IHC) is a highly sensitive and specific technique involved in the detection of target antigens in tissue sections with labeled ...

identification-orexin-endocannabinoid-receptors-adult-zebrafish-using

Research

JoVE Journal

Biochemistry

7.9K Views.  University of Sannio. Presented here are protocols for immunohistochemical characterization and localization of orexin peptide, orexin receptors, and endocannabinoid receptors in the gut and brains of normal and diet-induced obesity (DIO) adult zebrafish models using immunoperixidase and double immunofluorescence methods.

Video: Identification of Orexin and Endocannabinoid Receptors in Adult Zebrafish Using Immunoperoxidase and Immunofluorescence Methods

Identification of Fatty Acids in Bacillus cereus

The Bacillus species contain branched chain and unsaturated fatty acids (FAs) with diverse positions of the methyl branch (iso or anteiso) and of the double bond. Changes in FA composition play a crucial role in the adaptation of bacteria to their environment. These modifications entail a change in the ratio of iso versus anteiso branched FAs, and in the proportion of unsaturated FAs relative to saturated FAs, with double bonds created at specific positions. Precise identification of the FA profile is necessary to understand the adaptation mechanisms of Bacillus species.
Many of the FAs from Bacillus are not commercially available. The strategy proposed herein identifies FAs by combining information on the retention time (by calculation of the equivalent chain length (ECL)) with the mass spectra of three types of FA derivatives: fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs), 4,4-dimethyl oxazoline derivatives (DMOX), and 3-pyridylcarbinyl ester (picolinyl). This method can identify the FAs without the need to purify the unknown FAs.
Comparing chromatographic profiles of FAME prepared from Bacillus cereus with a commercial mixture of standards allows for the identification of straight-chain saturated FAs, the calculation of the ECL, and hypotheses on the identity of the other FAs. FAMEs of branched saturated FAs, iso or anteiso, display a constant negative shift in the ECL, compared to linear saturated FAs with the same number of carbons. FAMEs of unsaturated FAs can be detected by the mass of their molecular ions, and result in a positive shift in the ECL compared to the corresponding saturated FAs.
The branching position of FAs and the double bond position of unsaturated FAs can be identified by the electron ionization mass spectra of picolinyl and DMOX derivatives, respectively. This approach identifies all the unknown saturated branched FAs, unsaturated straight-chain FAs and unsaturated branched FAs from the B. cereus extract.

Identification of Fatty Acids in Bacillus cereus

We propose a protocol to identify fatty acids without the need to purify them. It combines information on the retention times with the mass spectra of three types of fatty acid derivatives: fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs), 4,4-dimethyl oxazoline derivatives (DMOX), and 3-pyridylcarbinyl esters (picolinyl).

The Bacillus species contain branched chain and unsaturated fatty acids (FAs) with diverse positions of the methyl branch (iso or anteiso) and of the ...

Identification of Plant Ice-binding Proteins Through Assessment of Ice-recrystallization Inhibition and Isolation Using Ice-affinity Purification

Ice-binding proteins (IBPs) belong to a family of stress-induced proteins that are synthesized by certain organisms exposed to subzero temperatures. In plants, freeze damage occurs when extracellular ice crystals grow, resulting in the rupture of plasma membranes and possible cell death. Adsorption of IBPs to ice crystals restricts further growth by a process known as ice-recrystallization inhibition (IRI), thereby reducing cellular damage. IBPs also demonstrate the ability to depress the freezing point of a solution below the equilibrium melting point, a property known as thermal hysteresis (TH) activity. These protective properties have raised interest in the identification of novel IBPs due to their potential use in industrial, medical and agricultural applications. This paper describes the identification of plant IBPs through 1) the induction and extraction of IBPs in plant tissue, 2) the screening of extracts for IRI activity, and 3) the isolation and purification of IBPs. Following the induction of IBPs by low temperature exposure, extracts are tested for IRI activity using a &#39;splat assay&#39;, which allows the observation of ice crystal growth using a standard light microscope. This assay requires a low protein concentration and generates results that are quickly obtained and easily interpreted, providing an initial screen for ice binding activity. IBPs can then be isolated from contaminating proteins by utilizing the property of IBPs to adsorb to ice, through a technique called &#39;ice-affinity purification&#39;. Using cell lysates collected from plant extracts, an ice hemisphere can be slowly grown on a brass probe. This incorporates IBPs into the crystalline structure of the polycrystalline ice. Requiring no a priori biochemical or structural knowledge of the IBP, this method allows for recovery of active protein. Ice-purified protein fractions can be used for downstream applications including the identification of peptide sequences by mass spectrometry and the biochemical analysis of native proteins.

This paper outlines the identification of ice-binding proteins from freeze-tolerant plants through the assessment of ice-recrystallization inhibition activity and subsequent isolation of native IBPs using ice-affinity purification.

Ice-binding proteins (IBPs) belong to a family of stress-induced proteins that are synthesized by certain organisms exposed to subzero temperatures. In ...

Sample Preparation for Mass Spectrometry-based Identification of RNA-binding Regions

Noncoding RNAs play important roles in several nuclear processes, including regulating gene expression, chromatin structure, and DNA repair. In most cases, the action of noncoding RNAs is mediated by proteins whose functions are in turn regulated by these interactions with noncoding RNAs. Consistent with this, a growing number of proteins involved in nuclear functions have been reported to bind RNA and in a few cases the RNA-binding regions of these proteins have been mapped, often through laborious, candidate-based methods.
Here, we report a detailed protocol to perform a high-throughput, proteome-wide unbiased identification of RNA-binding proteins and their RNA-binding regions. The methodology relies on the incorporation of a photoreactive uridine analog in the cellular RNA, followed by UV-mediated protein-RNA crosslinking, and mass spectrometry analyses to reveal RNA-crosslinked peptides within the proteome. Although we describe the procedure for mouse embryonic stem cells, the protocol should be easily adapted to a variety of cultured cells.

We describe a protocol to identify RNA-binding proteins and map their RNA-binding regions in live cells using UV-mediated photocrosslinking and mass spectrometry.

Noncoding RNAs play important roles in several nuclear processes, including regulating gene expression, chromatin structure, and DNA repair. In most ...

The Identification of Sea Lamprey Pheromones Using Bioassay-Guided Fractionation

Bioassay-guided fractionation is an iterative approach that uses the results of physiological and behavioral bioassays to guide the isolation and identification of an active pheromone compound. This method has resulted in the successful characterization of the chemical signals that function as pheromones in a wide range of animal species. Sea lampreys rely on olfaction to detect pheromones that mediate behavioral or physiological responses. We use this knowledge of fish biology to posit functions of putative pheromones and to guide the isolation and identification of active pheromone components. Chromatography is used to extract, concentrate, and separate compounds from the conditioned water. Electro-olfactogram (EOG) recordings are conducted to determine which fractions elicit olfactory responses. Two-choice maze behavioral assays are then used to determine if any of the odorous fractions are also behaviorally active and induce a preference. Spectrometric and spectroscopic methods provide the molecular weight and structural information to assist with the structure elucidation. The bioactivity of the pure compounds is confirmed with EOG and behavioral assays. The behavioral responses observed in the maze should ultimately be validated in a field setting to confirm their function in a natural stream setting. These bioassays play a dual role to 1) guide the fractionation process and 2) confirm and further define the bioactivity of isolated components. Here, we report the representative results of a sea lamprey pheromone identification that exemplify the utility of the bioassay-guided fractionation approach. The identification of sea lamprey pheromones is particularly important because a modulation of its pheromone communication system is among the options considered to control the invasive sea lamprey in the Laurentian Great Lakes. This method can be readily adapted to characterize the chemical communication in a broad array of taxa and shed light on waterborne chemical ecology.

Here, we present a protocol to isolate and characterize the structure, olfactory potency, and behavioral response of putative pheromone compounds of sea lampreys.

Bioassay-guided fractionation is an iterative approach that uses the results of physiological and behavioral bioassays to guide the isolation and ...

Capture and Identification of RNA-binding Proteins by Using Click Chemistry-assisted RNA-interactome Capture (CARIC) Strategy

A comprehensive identification of RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) is key to understanding the posttranscriptional regulatory network in cells. A widely used strategy for RBP capture exploits the polyadenylation [poly(A)] of target RNAs, which mostly occurs on eukaryotic mature mRNAs, leaving most binding proteins of non-poly(A) RNAs unidentified. Here we describe the detailed procedures of a recently reported method termed click chemistry-assisted RNA-interactome capture (CARIC), which enables the transcriptome-wide capture of both poly(A) and non-poly(A) RBPs by combining the metabolic labeling of RNAs, in vivo UV cross-linking, and bioorthogonal tagging.

Capture and Identification of RNA-binding Proteins by Using Click Chemistry-assisted RNA-interactome Capture CARIC Strategy

A detailed protocol for applying the click chemistry-assisted RNA-interactome capture (CARIC) strategy to identify proteins binding to both coding and noncoding RNAs is presented.

A comprehensive identification of RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) is key to understanding the posttranscriptional regulatory network in cells. A widely used ...

Identification of Novel CK2 Kinase Substrates Using a Versatile Biochemical Approach

The study of kinase-substrate relationships is essential to gain a complete understanding of the functions of these enzymes and their downstream targets in both physiological and pathological states. CK2 is an evolutionarily conserved serine/threonine kinase with a growing list of hundreds of substrates involved in multiple cellular processes. Due to its pleiotropic properties, identifying and characterizing a comprehensive set of CK2 substrates has been particularly challenging and remains a hurdle in the study of this important enzyme. To address this challenge, we have devised a versatile experimental strategy that enables the targeted enrichment and identification of putative CK2 substrates. This protocol takes advantage of the unique dual co-substrate specificity of CK2 allowing for specific thiophosphorylation of its substrates in a cell or tissue lysate. These substrate proteins are subsequently alkylated, immunoprecipitated, and identified by liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). We have previously used this approach to successfully identify CK2 substrates from Drosophila ovaries and here we extend the application of this protocol to human glioblastoma cells, illustrating the adaptability of this method to investigate the biological roles of this kinase in various model organisms and experimental systems.

The objective of this protocol is to label, enrich, and identify substrates of protein kinase CK2 from a complex biological sample such as a cell lysate or tissue homogenate. This method leverages unique aspects of CK2 biology for this purpose.

The study of kinase-substrate relationships is essential to gain a complete understanding of the functions of these enzymes and their downstream targets ...

Nitropeptide Profiling and Identification Illustrated by Angiotensin II

Protein nitration is one of the most important post-translational modifications (PTM) on tyrosine residues and it can be induced by chemical actions of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) in eukaryotic cells. Precise identification of nitration sites on proteins is crucial for understanding the physiological and pathological processes related to protein nitration, such as inflammation, aging, and cancer. Since the nitrated proteins are of low abundance in cells even under induced conditions, no universal and efficient methods have been developed for the profiling and identification of protein nitration sites. Here we describe a protocol for nitropeptide enrichment by using a chemical reduction reaction and biotin labeling, followed by high resolution mass spectrometry. In our method, nitropeptide derivatives can be identified with high accuracy. Our method exhibits two advantages compared to the previously reported methods. First, dimethyl labeling is used to block the primary amine on nitropeptides, which can be used to generate quantitative results. Second, a disulfide bond containing NHS-biotin reagent is used for the enrichment, which can be further reduced and alkylated to enhance the detection signal on a mass spectrometer. This protocol has been successfully applied to the model peptide Angiotensin II in the current paper.

Proteomic profiling of tyrosine-nitrated proteins has been a challenging technique due to the low abundance of the 3-nitrotyrosine modification. Here we describe a novel approach for nitropeptide enrichment and profiling by using Angiotensin II as the model. This method can be extended for other in vitro or in vivo systems.

Protein nitration is one of the most important post-translational modifications (PTM) on tyrosine residues and it can be induced by chemical actions of ...

SUMO-Binding Entities (SUBEs) as Tools for the Enrichment, Isolation, Identification, and Characterization of the SUMO Proteome in Liver Cancer

Post-translational modification is a key mechanism regulating protein homeostasis and function in eukaryotic cells. Among all ubiquitin-like proteins in liver cancer, the modification by SUMO (Small Ubiquitin MOdifier) has been given the most attention. Isolation of endogenous SUMOylated proteins in vivo is challenging due to the presence of active SUMO-specific proteases. Initial studies of SUMOylation in vivo were based on the molecular detection of specific SUMOylated proteins (e.g., by western blot). However, in many cases, antibodies, generally made with non-modified recombinant protein, did not immunoprecipitate SUMOylated forms of the protein of interest.&#160;Nickel chromatography has been the other approach to study SUMOylation by capturing histidine-tagged versions of SUMO molecules. This approach is mainly used in cells stably expressing or transiently transfected with His-SUMO molecules. To overcome these limitations, SUMO-binding entities (SUBEs) were developed to isolate endogenous SUMOylated proteins. Herein, we describe all the steps required for the enrichment, isolation, and identification of SUMOylated substrates from human hepatoma cells and hepatic tissues from a liver cancer mouse model by using SUBEs. Firstly, we describe methods involved in the preparation and lysis of the human hepatoma cells and liver tumor tissue samples. Then, a thorough explanation of the preparation of SUBEs and controls is detailed along with the protocol for the protein pull-down assays. Finally, some examples are provided regarding the options available for the identification and characterization of the SUMOylated proteome, namely the use of western-blot analysis for the detection of a specific SUMOylated substrate from liver tumors or the use of proteomics by mass spectrometry for high-throughput characterization of the SUMOylated proteome and interactome in hepatoma cells.

SUMO-Binding Entities SUBEs as Tools for the Enrichment, Isolation, Identification, and Characterization of the SUMO Proteome in Liver Cancer

Here, we present a protocol to enrich, isolate, identify, and characterize proteins modified by SUMO in vivo both from human hepatoma cells and liver tumors obtained from mouse models of hepatocellular carcinoma by using SUMO-binding entities (SUBEs).

Post-translational modification is a key mechanism regulating protein homeostasis and function in eukaryotic cells. Among all ubiquitin-like proteins in ...

Profiling Ubiquitin and Ubiquitin-like Dependent Post-translational Modifications and Identification of Significant Alterations

Ubiquitin (ub) and ubiquitin-like (ubl) dependent post-translational modifications of proteins play fundamental biological regulatory roles within the cell by controlling protein stability, activity, interactions, and intracellular localization. They enable the cell to respond to signals and to adapt to changes in its environment. Alterations within these mechanisms can lead to severe pathological situations such as neurodegenerative diseases and cancers. The aim of the technique described here is to establish ub/ubls dependent PTMs profiles, rapidly and accurately, from cultured cell lines. The comparison of different profiles obtained from different conditions allows the identification of specific alterations, such as those induced by a treatment for example. Lentiviral mediated cell transduction is performed to create stable cell lines expressing a two-tags (6His and Flag) version of the modifier (ubiquitin or a ubl such as SUMO1 or Nedd8). These tags permit the purification of ubiquitin and therefore of ubiquitinated proteins from the cells. This is done through a two-step purification process: The first one is performed in denaturing conditions using the 6His tag, and the second one in native conditions using the Flag tag. This leads to a highly specific and pure isolation of modified proteins which are subsequently identified and semi-quantified by liquid chromatography followed by tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) technology. Easy informatics analysis of MS data using Excel software enables the establishment of PTM profiles by eliminating background signals. These profiles are compared between each condition in order to identify specific alterations which will then be studied more specifically, starting with their validation by standard biochemistry techniques.

This protocol aims at establishing ubiquitin (Ub) and ubiquitin-likes (Ubls) specific proteomes in order to identify alterations of these kind of post-translational modifications (PTMs), associated with a specific condition such as a treatment or a phenotype.

Ubiquitin (ub) and ubiquitin-like (ubl) dependent post-translational modifications of proteins play fundamental biological regulatory roles within the ...

Visualization of Estrogen Receptors in Colons of Mice with TNBS-Induced Crohn's Disease using Immunofluorescence

Crohn&#39;s disease is the most diagnosed type of inflammatory bowel disease. Chronic inflammation developing in the intestine leads to peristalsis disorder and damage of intestinal mucosa and seems to be associated with an increased risk of colon neoplastic transformation. Accumulating evidence indicates that estrogens and estrogen receptors affect not only hormone-sensitive tissues, but also other tissues not directly related to estrogens, such as the lungs or colon. Here, we describe the protocol for the successful immunofluorescence staining of estrogen receptors in colon obtained from a murine model of TNBS-induced Crohn&#39;s disease. A detailed protocol for the induction of Crohn&#39;s disease in mice and intestine preparation is provided as well as a step-by-step immunohistochemical procedure using formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded intestine sections. The described methods are not only useful for estrogen receptor detection and estrogen signaling investigation in vivo but can also be applied to for other proteins which may be involved in the development of colitis.

The protocol presents a complete validated TNBS-induced murine model of Crohn&#39;s disease and methods for visualization of estrogen receptors by immunohistochemistry using immunofluorescence of formalin-fixed colon sections embedded in paraffin.

Crohn&#39;s disease is the most diagnosed type of inflammatory bowel disease. Chronic inflammation developing in the intestine leads to peristalsis ...