Eric Ubil was funded, in part, by the American Cancer Society Postdoctoral Fellowship (128770-PF-15-216-01-LIB). The work was supported by a grant from the NIH (R01-CA205398) and a Breast Cancer Research Foundation award (BCRF-18-041) to HSE.

All procedures related to the harvest and use of murine peritoneal macrophages were conducted at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC) and were approved by the UNC Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC).
1. Macrophage culture
NOTE: This procedure can utilize primary peritoneal macrophages (described in detail below), bone marrow-derived macrophages, or macrophage cell lines such as J774 (ATCC) or RAW264 (ATCC).
<ol>
	<li>Harvest peritoneal macrophages as previously described16,17 and plate directly into the upper chamber(s) of a 0.4 &#181;m polyester membrane insert co-culture 6 well plate (Figure 1A). 
	NOTE: The approximate yield of macrophages from each isolation is 1 x 106 cells total, so the average number of cells per well is ~1.5&#8211;1.6 x 105 cells in a 6 well plate.</li>
	<li>Culture the harvested macrophages in Dulbecco&#8217;s Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM)/F12, 10% Fetal Bovine Serum (FBS), 1x penicillin/streptomycin, 20 ng/mL macrophage colony stimulating factor (M-CSF) for 3 days at 37 &#176;C, 5% CO2. 
	NOTE: The upper chamber contains 1 mL of culture medium while the lower chamber is filled with 1.5 mL. The medium must be added to each chamber.</li>
</ol>
2. Coculture of tumor cells with macrophages
<ol>
	<li>Prior to use, culture commercially available tumor cells in their respective medium following ATCC-recommended tissue culture methods.</li>
	<li>Wash adherent tumor cells once with phosphate buffered saline (PBS), add 0.05% trypsin + ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), and incubate at 37 &#176;C until the cells detach. Resuspend the cells in FBS containing medium, quantitate the total number of cells using a hemocytometer or cell counter, and then centrifuge for 5 min at 220 x g to pellet.</li>
	<li>During centrifugation, aspirate the medium from the upper and lower chambers of the macrophage-containing permeable membrane support plates and replace with fresh medium.
	<ol>
		<li>For lower chambers where tumor cells will be plated, fill with 1 mL of medium instead of 1.5 mL to allow for sufficient volume for cell addition.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Aspirate medium from pelleted tumor cells and resuspend cells in DMEM/F12 with 10% FBS, 1x penicillin/streptomycin, and 20 ng/mL M-CSF at a concentration of 3 x 105 cells/mL.</li>
	<li>Add 0.5 mL of 3 x 105 cells/mL tumor cells to the lower chamber of desired wells (Figure 1B). 
	NOTE: Cells can be treated immediately.</li>
</ol>
3. Treatment of co-cultured cells
<ol>
	<li>To induce macrophage pro-inflammatory gene expression, treat singly or co-cultured macrophages by adding 100 ng/mL IFN&#947; and 50 ng/mL LPS.
	<ol>
		<li>Vary the duration of treatment times in culture as needed. Macrophage activation occurs within 2 h and some tumor-mediated suppression occurs by 8 h. Co-culture for 24 h yields robust and consistent tumor-derived suppression. 
		NOTE: Alternatively, macrophages can be induced to adopt a pro-wound healing phenotype through the addition of factors such as interleukin-10 (IL10), and the effect of the tumor-secreted ligand assessed.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>As a negative control, culture macrophages singly and leave untreated. As a positive control, treat singly cultured macrophages with 100 ng/mL IFN&#947; and 50 ng/mL LPS.</li>
</ol>
4. Downstream analysis of co-cultured cells
<ol>
	<li>After desired incubation time has elapsed, isolate the cell lysate or conditioned culture medium as desired, depending on testing needs.</li>
	<li>To isolate the cell lysate for quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) analysis, aspirate the media from both chambers of the well and wash once with 2 mL of PBS. Apply RNA lysis buffer to the top chamber containing the macrophages. Gently scrape the membrane to release the cell lysate, and transfer to a collection tube for further processing according to the RNA isolation kit manufacturer&#8217;s protocol.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
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J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Engagement+of+the+PD-1+immunoinhibitory+receptor+by+a+novel+B7+family+member+leads+to+negative+regulation+of+lymphocyte+activation.">Engagement of the PD-1 immunoinhibitory receptor by a novel B7 family member leads to negative regulation of lymphocyte activation.</a> Journal of Experimental Medicine. 192 (7), 1027-1034 (2000).</li><li>Agata, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Expression+of+the+PD-1+antigen+on+the+surface+of+stimulated+mouse+T+and+B+lymphocytes.">Expression of the PD-1 antigen on the surface of stimulated mouse T and B lymphocytes.</a> International Immunology. 8 (5), 765-772 (1996).</li><li>Dong, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tumor-associated+B7-H1+promotes+T-cell+apoptosis:+a+potential+mechanism+of+immune+evasion.">Tumor-associated B7-H1 promotes T-cell apoptosis: a potential mechanism of immune evasion.</a> Nature Medicine. 8 (8), 793-800 (2002).</li><li>Sznol, M., Chen, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Antagonist+antibodies+to+PD-1+and+B7-H1+(PD-L1)+in+the+treatment+of+advanced+human+cancer--response.">Antagonist antibodies to PD-1 and B7-H1 (PD-L1) in the treatment of advanced human cancer--response.</a> Clinical Cancer Research. 19 (19), 5542 (2013).</li><li>Kortylewski, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Regulation+of+the+IL-23+and+IL-12+balance+by+Stat3+signaling+in+the+tumor+microenvironment.">Regulation of the IL-23 and IL-12 balance by Stat3 signaling in the tumor microenvironment.</a> Cancer Cell. 15 (2), 114-123 (2009).</li><li>Halak, B. K., Maguire, H. C., Lattime, E. 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The authors have nothing to disclose.

The co-culture assay presented here is a modification of previously established assays that allows for the study of tumor-secreted factors on immune cell activation. While cell-cell contact is known to induce changes in immune activity, the ability of tumor-secreted ligands to modulate immune activation is less well understood. We describe a method which, unlike direct co-culture, can be used to interrogate how tumor-derived secreted factors impact immune cell activation without the confounding nature of contact-mediated...

Recent studies have focused on the ability of cancer cells to avoid detection by immune cells, suppress local immune activation, or to produce a tolerogenic tumor-permissive milieu in the tumor microenvironment. Two broad classes of tumor and immune cell interactions have been described that facilitate these effects: contact-mediated interactions or tumor-secreted ligands. One of the most well-studied and clinically tractable mechanisms of contact-mediated immune inhibition utilized by tumors is the expression of PD-L1, which interacts with PD-1 on T cells to inhibit their activation and function1,2. In response to interferon-gamma (IFN&#947;), which is expressed by a number of activated immune cells, tumor cells can increase expression of PD-L1 to induce exhaustion of PD-1&#8211;expressing activated T cells, thereby preventing them from effectively eradicating tumor cells3. The use of antibodies to block the interaction between PD-L1 and PD-1 is currently used to treat multiple cancer types in humans4. In light of this clinical success and others, the identification and targeting of tumor-derived immunosuppressive mechanisms has received increasing attention.
Beyond suppression of adaptive immunity, tumors are also known to secrete factors that suppress the pro-inflammatory responses of innate immune cells. Tumor-derived or tumor-induced secretions, including IL-6, IL-10, VEGF, IL-23, and colony stimulating factor (CSF-1), have been shown to inhibit antitumor responses of natural killer (NK) cells, granulocytes, and dendritic cells in the tumor microenvironment5,6,7. Tumor cells can also secrete factors that skew the recruitment and differentiation of myeloid-derived cells in the tumor microenvironment to promote suppression of T cell activation8,9.
One type of innate immune cell that has a profound effect on tumor progression is the macrophage. For many years, the presence of tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) has been used as a negative prognostic of patient survival10. The concept that immunosuppressive TAMs dampen immune cell-mediated clearance of tumors was introduced more than 40 years ago11. More recently, it has been shown that the macrophage pro-inflammatory response can be downregulated while a pro-tumor phenotype can be induced in the tumor microenvironment. These immunosuppressive macrophages can contribute to a tolerogenic response, driving tumor progression and resistance to chemo- and immunotherapy12. Given that macrophages are often one of the most abundant leukocytes with the tumor, restoration of their tumor-specific immune activity represents a potential target for anticancer therapeutics13.
While contact-mediated interactions between tumor cells and macrophages can be modeled through direct coculture, the use of permeable membrane supports can elucidate which tumor-secreted factors are immunomodulatory without the potentially confounding influence of tumor-immune cell-cell contact. Using somewhat similar methods, others have demonstrated the potential of identifying secreted factors in microglia/neuronal interactions14 as well as tumor cells with mesothelial cells15. We have also successfully used this co-culture technique to characterize the role of a tumor-secreted protein, Pros1, as a suppressor of pro-inflammatory gene expression after the stimulation of peritoneal macrophages with LPS and interferon-gamma16. Here we describe a straightforward methodology that can be used to interrogate how tumor-secreted factors can affect macrophage activation.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:1419px;" width="1418">
	<colgroup>
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
	</colgroup>
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:444px;">B16-F10</td>
			<td style="width:244px;">ATCC</td>
			<td style="width:344px;">ATCC CRL-6475</td>
			<td style="width:387px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">cDNA synthesis kit</td>
			<td>Promega</td>
			<td>A3500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">DMEM/F12 media</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific- Gibco</td>
			<td>11320033</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Fetal Bovine Serum</td>
			<td>Millipore</td>
			<td>TMS-013-B</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">J774A.1</td>
			<td>ATCC</td>
			<td>ATCC TIB-67</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Lipopolysaccharides from Escherichia coli O111:B4</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>L5293-2ML</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Murine M-CSF</td>
			<td>Prospec</td>
			<td>CYT-439</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Penicillin-Streptomycin (10,000 U/mL)</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific- Gibco</td>
			<td>15140122</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Pros1 ELISA</td>
			<td>MyBioSource</td>
			<td>MBS2886720</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">RAW264.7</td>
			<td>ATCC</td>
			<td>ATCC TIB-71</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Recombinant Mouse IFN&#947;</td>
			<td>BioLegend</td>
			<td>575302</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Sensimix SYBR Low-ROX kit</td>
			<td>Bioline</td>
			<td>QT625-05</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Transwell permeable supports</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>07-200-170</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Trypsin-EDTA</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific- Gibco</td>
			<td>25200056</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

studying the effects of tumor-secreted paracrine ligands on macrophage activation using co-culture with permeable membrane supports

Tumor-derived paracrine signaling is an overlooked component of local immunosuppression and can lead to a permissive environment for continued cancer growth and metastasis. Paracrine signals can involve cell-cell contact between different cell types, such as PD-L1 expressed on the surface of tumors interacting directly with PD-1 on the surface of T cells, or the secretion of ligands by a tumor cell to affect an immune cell. Here we describe a co-culture method to interrogate the effects of tumor-secreted ligands on immune cell (macrophage) activation. This straightforward procedure utilizes commercially available 0.4 &#181;m polycarbonate membrane permeable supports and standard tissue culture plates. In the process described, macrophages are cultured in the upper chamber and tumor cells in the lower chamber. The presence of the 0.4 &#181;m barrier allows for the study of intercellular signaling without the confounding variable of physical contact, because the two cell types share the same medium and exposure to paracrine ligands. This approach can be combined with others, such as genetic alterations of the macrophage (e.g., isolation from genetic knock-out mice) or tumor (e.g., CRISPR-mediated alterations) to study the role of specific secreted factors and receptors. The approach also lends itself to standard molecular biological analyses such as quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) or Western blot analysis, without the need for flow sorting to separate the two cell populations. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) can similarly be utilized to measure secreted ligands to better understand the dynamic interaction of cell signaling in the multiple cell type context. Duration of co-culture can also be varied for the study of temporally regulated events. This co-culture method is a robust tool that facilitates the study of tumor-secreted signals in the immune context.

To determine the effect of tumor-secreted ligands on macrophage polarization, the procedure described was utilized. Peritoneal macrophages cultured in the absence of tumor cells were used as negative (untreated = far left) and positive (IFN&#947; and LPS stimulated = 2nd from left) controls (Figure 2A). Alternatively, peritoneal macrophages were co-cultured with B16F10 melanoma tumor cells (ATCC) (Figure 1A). Immediately after plating, cells were eith...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Studying the Effects of Tumor-Secreted Paracrine Ligands on Macrophage Activation using Co-Culture with Permeable Membrane Supports at JoVE.com

Studying the Effects of Tumor-Secreted Paracrine Ligands on Macrophage Activation using Co-Culture with Permeable Membrane Supports

Here, we present a method using permeable membrane supports to facilitate the study of non-contact paracrine signaling used by tumor cells to suppress the immune response. The system is amenable to studying the role of tumor-secreted factors in dampening macrophage activation.

Tumor-derived paracrine signaling is an overlooked component of local immunosuppression and can lead to a permissive environment for continued cancer ...

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7.4K Views.  University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Here, we present a method using permeable membrane supports to facilitate the study of non-contact paracrine signaling used by tumor cells to suppress the immune response. The system is amenable to studying the role of tumor-secreted factors in dampening macrophage activation.

Video: Studying the Effects of Tumor-Secreted Paracrine Ligands on Macrophage Activation using Co-Culture with Permeable Membrane Supports

The Drosophila Imaginal Disc Tumor Model: Visualization and Quantification of Gene Expression and Tumor Invasiveness Using Genetic Mosaics

Drosophila melanogaster has emerged as a powerful experimental system for functional and mechanistic studies of tumor development and progression in the context of a whole organism. Sophisticated techniques to generate genetic mosaics facilitate induction of visually marked, genetically defined clones surrounded by normal tissue. The clones can be analyzed through diverse molecular, cellular and omics approaches. This study describes how to generate fluorescently labeled clonal tumors of varying malignancy in the eye/antennal imaginal discs (EAD) of Drosophila larvae using the Mosaic Analysis with a Repressible Cell Marker (MARCM) technique. It describes procedures how to recover the mosaic EAD and brain from the larvae and how to process them for simultaneous imaging of fluorescent transgenic reporters and antibody staining. To facilitate molecular characterization of the mosaic tissue, we describe a protocol for isolation of total RNA from the EAD. The dissection procedure is suitable to recover EAD and brains from any larval stage. The fixation and staining protocol for imaginal discs works with a number of transgenic reporters and antibodies that recognize Drosophila proteins. The protocol for RNA isolation can be applied to various larval organs, whole larvae, and adult flies. Total RNA can be used for profiling of gene expression changes using candidate or genome-wide approaches. Finally, we detail a method for quantifying invasiveness of the clonal tumors. Although this method has limited use, its underlying concept is broadly applicable to other quantitative studies where cognitive bias must be avoided.

The Drosophila Imaginal Disc Tumor Model: Visualization and Quantification of Gene Expression and Tumor Invasiveness Using Genetic Mosaics

This protocol demonstrates how to generate fluorescently marked, genetically defined clonal tumors in the Drosophila eye/antennal imaginal discs (EAD). It describes how to dissect the EAD and brain from the third instar larvae and how to process them to visualize and quantify gene expression changes and tumor invasiveness.

Drosophila melanogaster has emerged as a powerful experimental system for functional and mechanistic studies of tumor development and progression in the ...

Practical Considerations in Studying Metastatic Lung Colonization in Osteosarcoma Using the Pulmonary Metastasis Assay

The pulmonary metastasis assay (PuMA) is an ex vivo lung explant and closed cell culture system that permits researchers to study the biology of lung colonization in osteosarcoma (OS) by fluorescence microscopy. This article provides a detailed description of the protocol, and discusses examples of obtaining image data on metastatic growth using widefield or confocal fluorescence microscopy platforms. The flexibility of the PuMA model permits researchers to study not only the growth of OS cells in the lung microenvironment, but also to assess the effects of anti-metastatic therapeutics over time. Confocal microscopy allows for unprecedented, high-resolution imaging of OS cell interactions with the lung parenchyma. Moreover, when the PuMA model is combined with fluorescent dyes or fluorescent protein genetic reporters, researchers can study the lung microenvironment, cellular and subcellular structures, gene function, and promoter activity in metastatic OS cells. The PuMA model provides a new tool for osteosarcoma researchers to discover new metastasis biology and assess the activity of novel anti-metastatic, targeted therapies.

The goal of this article is to provide a detailed description of the protocol for the pulmonary metastasis assay (PuMA). This model permits researchers to study metastatic osteosarcoma (OS) cell growth in lung tissue using a widefield fluorescence or confocal laser-scanning microscope.

The pulmonary metastasis assay (PuMA) is an ex vivo lung explant and closed cell culture system that permits researchers to study the biology of lung ...

Characterization of Cell Membrane Extensions and Studying Their Roles in Cancer Cell Adhesion Dynamics

The cell membrane&#39;s extension repertoire modulates various malignant behaviors of cancer cells, including their adhesive and migratory potentials. The ability to accurately classify and quantify cell extensions and measure the effect on a cell&#39;s adhesive capacity is critical to determining how cell-signaling events impact cancer cell behavior and aggressiveness. Here, we describe the in vitro design and use of a cell extension quantification method in conjunction with an adhesion capacity assay in an established in vitro model for adrenocortical carcinoma (ACC). Specifically, we test the effects of DKK3, a putative tumor suppressor and a pro-differentiation factor, on the membrane extension phenotype of the ACC cell line, SW-13. We propose these assays to provide relatively simple, reliable, and easily interpretable metrics to measures these characteristics under various experimental conditions.

This study demonstrates the utility and ease of quantitative cell membrane extension measurement and its correlation to adhesive capacity of cells. As a representative example, we show here that Dickkopf-related protein 3 (DKK3) promotes increased lobopodia formation and cell adhesiveness in adrenocortical carcinoma cells in vitro.

The cell membrane&#39;s extension repertoire modulates various malignant behaviors of cancer cells, including their adhesive and migratory potentials. The ...

Imaging Approaches to Assessments of Toxicological Oxidative Stress Using Genetically-encoded Fluorogenic Sensors

While oxidative stress is a commonly cited toxicological mechanism, conventional methods to study it suffer from a number of shortcomings, including destruction of the sample, introduction of potential artifacts, and a lack of specificity for the reactive species involved. Thus, there is a current need in the field of toxicology for non-destructive, sensitive, and specific methods that can be used to observe and quantify intracellular redox perturbations, more commonly referred to as oxidative stress. Here, we present a method for the use of two genetically-encoded fluorogenic sensors, roGFP2 and HyPer, to be used in live-cell imaging studies to observe xenobiotic-induced oxidative responses. roGFP2 equilibrates with the glutathione redox potential (EGSH), while HyPer directly detects hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Both sensors can be expressed into various cell types via transfection or transduction, and can be targeted to specific cellular compartments. Most importantly, live-cell microscopy using these sensors offers high spatial and temporal resolution that is not possible using conventional methods. Changes in the fluorescence intensity monitored at 510 nm serves as the readout for both genetically-encoded fluorogenic sensors when sequentially excited by 404 nm and 488 nm light. This property makes both sensors ratiometric, eliminating common microscopy artifacts and correcting for differences in sensor expression between cells. This methodology can be applied across a variety of fluorometric platforms capable of exciting and collecting emissions at the prescribed wavelengths, making it suitable for use with confocal imaging systems, conventional wide-field microscopy, and plate readers. Both genetically-encoded fluorogenic sensors have been used in a variety of cell types and toxicological studies to monitor cellular EGSH and H2O2 generation in real-time. Outlined here is a standardized method that is widely adaptable across cell types and fluorometric platforms for the application of roGFP2 and HyPer in live-cell toxicological assessments of oxidative stress.

This manuscript describes the use of genetically-encoded fluorogenic reporters in an application of live-cell imaging for the examination of xenobiotic-induced oxidative stress. This experimental approach offers unparalleled spatiotemporal resolution, sensitivity, and specificity while avoiding many of the shortcomings of conventional methods used for the detection of toxicological oxidative stress.

While oxidative stress is a commonly cited toxicological mechanism, conventional methods to study it suffer from a number of shortcomings, including ...

Dual Effects of Melanoma Cell-derived Factors on Bone Marrow Adipocytes Differentiation

The crosstalk between bone marrow adipocytes and tumor cells may play a critical role in the process of bone metastasis. A variety of methods are available for studying the significant crosstalk; however, a two-dimensional transwell system for coculture remains a classic, reliable, and easy way for this crosstalk study. Here, we present a detailed protocol that shows the coculture of bone marrow adipocytes and melanoma cells. Nevertheless, such a coculture system could not only contribute to the study of cell signal transductions of cancer cells induced by bone marrow adipocytes, but also to the future mechanistic study of bone metastasis which may reveal new therapeutic targets for bone metastasis.

Here, we present a reliable and straightforward two-dimensional (2D) coculture system for studying the interaction between tumor cells and bone marrow adipocytes, which reveals a dual effect of melanoma cell-derived factors on the bone marrow adipocytes differentiation and also poses a classic method for the mechanistic study of bone metastasis.

The crosstalk between bone marrow adipocytes and tumor cells may play a critical role in the process of bone metastasis. A variety of methods are ...

Mesenchymal Stem Cell Isolation from Pulp Tissue and Co-Culture with Cancer Cells to Study Their Interactions

Cancer as a multistep process and complicated disease is not only regulated by individual cell proliferation and growth but also controlled by tumor environment and cell-cell interactions. Identification of cancer and stem cell interactions, including changes in extracellular environment, physical interactions, and secreted factors, might enable the discovery of new therapy options. We combine known co-culture techniques to create a model system for mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and cancer cell interactions. In the current study, dental pulp stem cells (DPSCs) and PC-3 prostate cancer cell interactions were examined by direct and indirect co-culture techniques. Condition medium (CM) obtained from DPSCs and 0.4 &#181;m pore sized trans-well membranes were used to study paracrine activity. Co-culture of different cell types together was performed to study direct cell-cell interaction. The results revealed that CM increased cell proliferation and decreased apoptosis in prostate cancer cell cultures. Both CM and trans-well system increased cell migration capacity of PC-3 cells. Cells stained with different membrane dyes were seeded into the same culture vessels, and DPSCs participated in a self-organized structure with PC-3 cells under this direct co-culture condition. Overall, the results indicated that co-culture techniques could be useful for cancer and MSC interactions as a model system.

We provide protocols for evaluation of mesenchymal stem cells isolated from dental pulp and prostate cancer cell interactions based on direct and indirect co-culture methods. Condition medium and trans-well membranes are suitable to analyze indirect paracrine activity. Seeding differentially stained cells together is an appropriate model for direct cell-cell interaction.

Cancer as a multistep process and complicated disease is not only regulated by individual cell proliferation and growth but also controlled by tumor ...

Measuring Bone Remodeling and Recreating the Tumor-Bone Microenvironment Using Calvaria Co-culture and Histomorphometry

Bone is a connective tissue constituted of osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts and a mineralized extracellular matrix, which gives it its strength and flexibility and allows it to fulfill its functions. Bone is continuously exposed to a variety of stimuli, which in pathological conditions can deregulate bone remodeling. To study bone biology and diseases and evaluate potential therapeutic agents, it has been necessary to develop in vitro and in vivo models.
This manuscript describes the dissection process and culture conditions of calvarias isolated from neonatal mice to study bone formation and the bone tumor microenvironment. In contrast to in vitro and in vivo models, this ex vivo model allows preservation of the three-dimensional environment of the tissue as well as the cellular diversity of the bone while culturing under defined conditions to simulate the desired microenvironment. Therefore, it is possible to investigate bone remodeling and its mechanisms, as well as the interactions with other cell types, such as the interactions between cancer cells and bone.
The assays reported here use calvarias from 5-7 day old BALB/C mice. The hemi-calvarias obtained are cultured in the presence of insulin, breast cancer cells (MDA-MB-231), or conditioned medium from breast cancer cell cultures. After analysis, it was established that insulin induced new bone formation, while cancer cells and their conditioned medium induced bone resorption. The calvarial model has been successfully used in basic and applied research to study bone development and cancer-induced bone diseases. Overall, it is an excellent option for an easy, informative, and low-cost assay.

The ex vivo culture of bone explants can be a valuable tool for the study of bone physiology and the potential evaluation of drugs in bone remodeling and bone diseases. The presented protocol describes the preparation and culture of calvarias isolated from newborn mice skulls, as well as its applications.

Bone is a connective tissue constituted of osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts and a mineralized extracellular matrix, which gives it its strength ...

Studying Normal Tissue Radiation Effects using Extracellular Matrix Hydrogels

Radiation is a therapy for patients with triple negative breast cancer. The effect of radiation on the extracellular matrix (ECM) of healthy breast tissue and its role in local recurrence at the primary tumor site are unknown. Here we present a method for the decellularization, lyophilization, and fabrication of ECM hydrogels derived from murine mammary fat pads. Results are presented on the effectiveness of the decellularization process, and rheological parameters were assessed. GFP- and luciferase-labeled breast cancer cells encapsulated in the hydrogels demonstrated an increase in proliferation in irradiated hydrogels. Finally, phalloidin conjugate staining was employed to visualize cytoskeleton organization of encapsulated tumor cells. Our goal is to present a method for fabricating hydrogels for in vitro study that mimic the in vivo breast tissue environment and its response to radiation in order to study tumor cell behavior.

This protocol presents a method for decellularization and subsequent hydrogel formation of murine mammary fat pads following ex vivo irradiation.

Radiation is a therapy for patients with triple negative breast cancer. The effect of radiation on the extracellular matrix (ECM) of healthy breast tissue ...

Characterization of the Effects of Migrastatic Inhibitors on 3D Tumor Spheroid Invasion by High-resolution Confocal Microscopy

Drug discovery and development in cancer research is increasingly being based on drug screens in a 3D format. Novel inhibitors targeting the migratory and invasive potential of cancer cells, and consequently the metastatic spread of disease, are being discovered and considered as complementary treatments in highly invasive cancers such as gliomas. Thus, generating data enabling the detailed analyses of cells in a 3D environment following the addition of a drug is required. The methodology described here, combining spheroid invasion assays with high-resolution image capture and data analysis by confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM), enabled detailed characterization of the effects of the potential anti-migratory inhibitor MI-192 on glioma cells. Spheroids were generated from cell lines for invasion assays in low adherent 96-well plates and then prepared for CLSM analysis. The described workflow was preferred over other commonly used spheroid-generating techniques due to both ease and reproducibility. This, combined with the enhanced image resolution attained by confocal microscopy compared to conventional wide-field approaches, allowed the identification and analysis of distinct morphological changes in migratory cells in a 3D environment following treatment with the migrastatic drug MI-192.

The effects of migrastatic inhibitors on glioma cancer cell migration in three-dimensional (3D) invasion assays using a histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitor are characterized by high-resolution confocal microscopy.

Drug discovery and development in cancer research is increasingly being based on drug screens in a 3D format. Novel inhibitors targeting the migratory and ...

Co-culture of Glioblastoma Stem-like Cells on Patterned Neurons to Study Migration and Cellular Interactions

Glioblastomas (GBMs), grade IV malignant gliomas, are one of the deadliest types of human cancer because of their aggressive characteristics. Despite significant advances in the genetics of these tumors, how GBM cells invade the healthy brain parenchyma is not well understood. Notably, it has been shown that GBM cells invade the peritumoral space via different routes; the main interest of this paper is the route along white matter tracts (WMTs). The interactions of tumor cells with the peritumoral nervous cell components are not well characterized. Herein, a method has been described that evaluates the impact of neurons on GBM cell invasion. This paper presents an advanced co-culture in vitro assay that mimics WMT invasion by analyzing the migration of GBM stem-like cells on neurons. The behavior of GBM cells in the presence of neurons is monitored by using an automated tracking procedure with open-source and free-access software. This method is useful for many applications, in particular, for functional and mechanistic studies as well as for analyzing the effects of pharmacological agents that can block GBM cell migration on neurons.

Here, we present an easy-to-use co-culture assay to analyze glioblastoma (GBM) migration on patterned neurons. We developed a macro in FiJi software for easy quantification of GBM cell migration on neurons, and observed that neurons modify GBM cell invasive capacity.

Glioblastomas (GBMs), grade IV malignant gliomas, are one of the deadliest types of human cancer because of their aggressive characteristics. Despite ...

Studying the Effects of Tumor-Secreted Paracrine Ligands on Macrophage Activation using Co-Culture with Permeable Membrane Supports

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Chapters in this video

The Drosophila Imaginal Disc Tumor Model: Visualization and Quantification of Gene Expression and Tumor Invasiveness Using Genetic Mosaics

Practical Considerations in Studying Metastatic Lung Colonization in Osteosarcoma Using the Pulmonary Metastasis Assay

Characterization of Cell Membrane Extensions and Studying Their Roles in Cancer Cell Adhesion Dynamics

Imaging Approaches to Assessments of Toxicological Oxidative Stress Using Genetically-encoded Fluorogenic Sensors

Dual Effects of Melanoma Cell-derived Factors on Bone Marrow Adipocytes Differentiation

Mesenchymal Stem Cell Isolation from Pulp Tissue and Co-Culture with Cancer Cells to Study Their Interactions

Measuring Bone Remodeling and Recreating the Tumor-Bone Microenvironment Using Calvaria Co-culture and Histomorphometry

Studying Normal Tissue Radiation Effects using Extracellular Matrix Hydrogels

Characterization of the Effects of Migrastatic Inhibitors on 3D Tumor Spheroid Invasion by High-resolution Confocal Microscopy

Co-culture of Glioblastoma Stem-like Cells on Patterned Neurons to Study Migration and Cellular Interactions