Name: a custom multiphoton microscopy platform for live imaging of mouse cornea and conjunctiva
Uploaded: 2020-05-17T14:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Custom Multiphoton Microscopy Platform for Live Imaging of Mouse Cornea and Conjunctiva at JoVE.com

We thank the grant support from Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan (106-2627-M-002-034, 107-2314-B-182A-089, 108-2628-B-002-023, 108-2628-B-002-023), National Taiwan University Hospital (NTUH108-T17) and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taiwan (CMRPG3G1621, CMRPG3G1622, CMRPG3G1623).

All animal experiments were conducted in accordance with procedures approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) of the National Taiwan University and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital.
1. Multiphoton microscopy setup
<ol>
	<li>Build a system based on an upright microscope with water immersion 20x 1.00 NA objective (Figure 1A).</li>
	<li>Use Ti: Sapphire laser (with tunable wavelength) as the excitation source. Set the laser output wavelength a...

<ol>
	<li>DelMonte, D. W., Kim, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Anatomy+and+physiology+of+the+cornea.">Anatomy and physiology of the cornea.</a> Journal of Cataract &amp; Refractive Surgery. 37 (3), 588-598 (2011).</li><li>Van Buskirk, E. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+anatomy+of+the+limbus.">The anatomy of the limbus.</a> Eye (London). 3, 101-108 (1989).</li><li>Hodges, R. R., Dartt, D. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tear+film+mucins:+front+line+defenders+of+the+ocular+surface;+comparison+with+airway+and+gastrointestinal+tract+mucins.">Tear film mucins: front line defenders of the ocular surface; comparison with airway and gastrointestinal tract mucins.</a> Experimental Eye Research. 117, 62-78 (2013).</li><li>Tan, H. Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multiphoton+fluorescence+and+second+harmonic+generation+imaging+of+the+structural+alterations+in+keratoconus+ex+vivo.">Multiphoton fluorescence and second harmonic generation imaging of the structural alterations in keratoconus ex vivo.</a> Investigative Ophthalmology &amp; Visual Science. 47 (12), 5251-5259 (2006).</li><li>Konig, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multiphoton+microscopy+in+life+sciences.">Multiphoton microscopy in life sciences.</a> Journal of Microscopy. 200, 83-104 (2000).</li><li>Rompolas, P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Spatiotemporal+coordination+of+stem+cell+commitment+during+epidermal+homeostasis.">Spatiotemporal coordination of stem cell commitment during epidermal homeostasis.</a> Science. 352 (6292), 1471-1474 (2016).</li><li>Park, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tissue-scale+coordination+of+cellular+behaviour+promotes+epidermal+wound+repair+in+live+mice.">Tissue-scale coordination of cellular behaviour promotes epidermal wound repair in live mice.</a> Nature Cell Biology. 19 (2), 155-163 (2017).</li><li>Xin, T., Gonzalez, D., Rompolas, P., Greco, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Flexible+fate+determination+ensures+robust+differentiation+in+the+hair+follicle.">Flexible fate determination ensures robust differentiation in the hair follicle.</a> Nature Cell Biology. 20 (12), 1361-1369 (2018).</li><li>Wu, Y. F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Intravital+multiphoton+microscopic+imaging+platform+for+ocular+surface+imaging.">Intravital multiphoton microscopic imaging platform for ocular surface imaging.</a> Experimental Eye Research. 182, 194-201 (2019).</li><li>Wu, Y. F., Tan, H. Y., Lin, S. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Long-Term+Intravital+Imaging+of+the+Cornea,+Skin,+and+Hair+Follicle+by+Multiphoton+Microscope.">Long-Term Intravital Imaging of the Cornea, Skin, and Hair Follicle by Multiphoton Microscope.</a> Methods in Molecular Biology. , (2019).</li><li>Lo, W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fast+Fourier+transform-based+analysis+of+second-harmonic+generation+image+in+keratoconic+cornea.">Fast Fourier transform-based analysis of second-harmonic generation image in keratoconic cornea.</a> Investigative Ophthalmology &amp; Visual Science. 53 (7), 3501-3507 (2012).</li><li>Tan, H. Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multiphoton+fluorescence+and+second+harmonic+generation+microscopy+for+imaging+infectious+keratitis.">Multiphoton fluorescence and second harmonic generation microscopy for imaging infectious keratitis.</a> Journal of Biomedical Optics. 12 (2), 024013 (2007).</li><li>Jester, J. V., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Four-dimensional+multiphoton+confocal+microscopy:+the+new+frontier+in+cellular+imaging.">Four-dimensional multiphoton confocal microscopy: the new frontier in cellular imaging.</a> Oculur Surface. 2 (1), 10-20 (2004).</li><li>Morishige, N., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Second-harmonic+imaging+microscopy+of+normal+human+and+keratoconus+cornea.">Second-harmonic imaging microscopy of normal human and keratoconus cornea.</a> Investigative Ophthalmology &amp; Visual Science. 48 (3), 1087-1094 (2007).</li><li>Hao, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+vivo+non-linear+optical+(NLO)+imaging+in+live+rabbit+eyes+using+the+Heidelberg+Two-Photon+Laser+Ophthalmoscope.">In vivo non-linear optical (NLO) imaging in live rabbit eyes using the Heidelberg Two-Photon Laser Ophthalmoscope.</a> Experimental Eye Research. 91 (2), 308-314 (2010).</li><li>Chen, Y. T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=R26R-GR:+a+Cre-activable+dual+fluorescent+protein+reporter+mouse.">R26R-GR: a Cre-activable dual fluorescent protein reporter mouse.</a> PLoS One. 7 (9), 46171 (2012).</li><li>Muzumdar, M. D., Tasic, B., Miyamichi, K., Li, L., Luo, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+global+double-fluorescent+Cre+reporter+mouse.">A global double-fluorescent Cre reporter mouse.</a> Genesis. 45 (9), 593-605 (2007).</li><li>Schindelin, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fiji:+an+open-source+platform+for+biological-image+analysis.">Fiji: an open-source platform for biological-image analysis.</a> Nature Methods. 9 (7), 676-682 (2012).</li><li>Masihzadeh, O., Lei, T. C., Ammar, D. A., Kahook, M. Y., Gibson, E. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+multiphoton+microscope+platform+for+imaging+the+mouse+eye.">A multiphoton microscope platform for imaging the mouse eye.</a> Molecular Vision. 18, 1840-1848 (2012).</li><li>Zhang, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Two-photon+imaging+of+the+cornea+visualized+in+the+living+mouse+using+vital+dyes.">Two-photon imaging of the cornea visualized in the living mouse using vital dyes.</a> Investigative Ophthalmology &amp; Visual Science. 54 (10), 6526-6536 (2013).</li><li>Lee, J. H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comparison+of+confocal+microscopy+and+two-photon+microscopy+in+mouse+cornea+in+vivo.">Comparison of confocal microscopy and two-photon microscopy in mouse cornea in vivo.</a> Experimental Eye Research. 132, 101-108 (2015).</li><li>Ehmke, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+vivo+nonlinear+imaging+of+corneal+structures+with+special+focus+on+BALB/c+and+streptozotocin-diabetic+Thy1-YFP+mice.">In vivo nonlinear imaging of corneal structures with special focus on BALB/c and streptozotocin-diabetic Thy1-YFP mice.</a> Experimental Eye Research. 146, 137-144 (2016).</li><li>Webster, M. T., Manor, U., Lippincott-Schwartz, J., Fan, C. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Intravital+Imaging+Reveals+Ghost+Fibers+as+Architectural+Units+Guiding+Myogenic+Progenitors+during+Regeneration.">Intravital Imaging Reveals Ghost Fibers as Architectural Units Guiding Myogenic Progenitors during Regeneration.</a> Cell Stem Cell. 18 (2), 243-252 (2016).</li><li>Mesa, K. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Homeostatic+Epidermal+Stem+Cell+Self-Renewal+Is+Driven+by+Local+Differentiation.">Homeostatic Epidermal Stem Cell Self-Renewal Is Driven by Local Differentiation.</a> Cell Stem Cell. 23 (5), 677-686 (2018).</li><li>Goh, C. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Real-time+imaging+of+dendritic+cell+responses+to+sterile+tissue+injury.">Real-time imaging of dendritic cell responses to sterile tissue injury.</a> Journal of Investigative Dermatology. 135 (4), 1181-1184 (2015).</li><li>Kissenpfennig, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dynamics+and+function+of+Langerhans+cells+in+vivo:+dermal+dendritic+cells+colonize+lymph+node+areas+distinct+from+slower+migrating+Langerhans+cells.">Dynamics and function of Langerhans cells in vivo: dermal dendritic cells colonize lymph node areas distinct from slower migrating Langerhans cells.</a> Immunity. 22 (5), 643-654 (2005).</li><li>Chow, Z., Mueller, S. N., Deane, J. A., Hickey, M. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dermal+regulatory+T+cells+display+distinct+migratory+behavior+that+is+modulated+during+adaptive+and+innate+inflammation.">Dermal regulatory T cells display distinct migratory behavior that is modulated during adaptive and innate inflammation.</a> Journal of Immunology. 191 (6), 3049-3056 (2013).</li><li>Dudeck, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mast+cells+are+key+promoters+of+contact+allergy+that+mediate+the+adjuvant+effects+of+haptens.">Mast cells are key promoters of contact allergy that mediate the adjuvant effects of haptens.</a> Immunity. 34 (6), 973-984 (2011).</li></ol>

This custom-built MPM imaging platform with a control software was used for intravital imaging of mouse epithelial organs, including skin10, hair follicle10 and ocular surface9,10 (Figure 1A). The custom-built system was used for its flexibility in changing the optical components for various experiments, since the beginning of our project. This imaging methodology is versatile for comme...

The ocular surface structures, including the cornea and conjunctiva, protect other deeper ocular tissues from external disturbances. The cornea, the transparent front part of the eye, functions both as a refractive lens for directing light into the eye and as a protective barrier. Corneal epithelium is the outermost layer of the cornea and consists of distinct layers of superficial cells, wing cells and basal cells. Corneal stroma is composed of sophisticatedly packed collagenous lamellae embedded with keratocytes. Corneal endothelium, a single layer of flat hexagonal cells, has an important role in maintaining the transparency of cornea by keeping corneal stroma in a relatively dehydrated state through its pumping functions1. Limbus forms the border between the cornea and the conjunctiva, and is the reservoir of corneal epithelial stem cells2. The highly vascularized conjunctiva helps to lubricate the eyes by producing mucus and tears3.
Cell dynamics of the corneal surface structures are conventionally studied by either histological analysis or in vitro cell culture, which might not adequately simulate the in vivo cell dynamics. A non-invasive live imaging approach can, therefore, bridge such the gap. Due to its advantages, which include high resolution, minimal photodamage and deeper imaging depth, MPM has become a powerful modality in diverse areas of biological research4,5,6,7,8. For corneal imaging, MPM provides cellular information from intrinsic autofluorescence derived from the intracellular NAD(P)H. Second harmonic generation (SHG) signals derived from the non-centrosymmetric type I collagen fibers under femtosecond laser scanning provides collagenous stromal structures without additional staining procedures9. Previously, we and other groups have exploited MPM for imaging of animal and human corneas9,10,11,12,13,14,15.
Transgenic mouse lines exhibiting fluorescent proteins in specific cell populations have been widely used for various studies in cell biology, including development, tissue homeostasis, tissue regeneration, and carcinogenesis. We used transgenic mouse strains labeled with fluorescent proteins for in vivo imaging of corneas9,10, hair follicles10 and epidermis10 by MPM. The dual fluorescent mouse strain with cell membrane labeled with tdTomato and cell nucleus tagged with EGFP is bred from two mouse strains: R26R-GR (B6;129-Gt (ROSA)26Sortm1Ytchn/J, #021847)16 and mT-mG (Gt(ROSA26)ACTB-tdTomato-EGFP, #007676)17. R26R-GR transgenic mouse line contains a dual fluorescent protein reporter constructs, including an H2B-EGFP fusion gene and mCherry-GPI anchor signal fusion gene, inserted into the Gt (ROSA)26Sor locus. The mT-mG transgenic strain is a cell membrane-targeted tdTomato and EGFP fluorescent Cre-reporter mice. Prior to Cre recombination, cell membrane protein with tdTomato fluorescence expression is widely present in various cells. This transgenic mouse strain enables us to visualize nuclei-EGFP and membrane with tdTomato without Cre excitation. Two females (R26R-GR+/+) and one male (mT-mG+/+) transgenic mouse were bred together to produce sufficient mice for experiments. Their offspring with R26R-GR+/-;mT-mG+/- genotype, a dual fluorescent mice strain, were used in this study. Compared with one fluorescent reporter mouse line as previously described9,10, this dual fluorescent reporter mouse strain provides us with a 50% reduced acquirement of imaging time.
In this work, we describe a detailed technical protocol for in vivo imaging of the ocular surface in a step-by-step manner using our imaging platform and dual fluorescent transgenic mice.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>AVIZO Lite software</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Version: 2019.3.0</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bandpass filters</td>
			<td>Semrock</td>
			<td>FF01-434/17 
			FF01-500/24 
			FF01-585/40</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dichroic mirrors</td>
			<td>Semrock</td>
			<td>FF495-Di01-25x36 FF580-Di01-25x36</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Galvano</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>GVS002</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Jade BIO control software</td>
			<td>SouthPort Corporation</td>
			<td>Jade BIO</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Oxybuprocaine hydrochloride</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>O0270000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PMT</td>
			<td>Hamamatsu</td>
			<td>H7422A-40</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polyesthylene Tube</td>
			<td>BECTON DICKINSON</td>
			<td>427401</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stereotaxic mouse holder</td>
			<td>Step Technology Co.,Ltd</td>
			<td>000111</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ti: Sapphire laser</td>
			<td>Spectra-Physics</td>
			<td>Mai-Tai DeepSee</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Upright microscopy</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>BX51WI</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vidisic Gel</td>
			<td>Dr. Gerhard Mann Chem-pharm. Fabrik GmbH</td>
			<td>D13581</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Zoletil</td>
			<td>Virbac</td>
			<td>VR-2831</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a custom multiphoton microscopy platform for live imaging of mouse cornea and conjunctiva

Conventional histological analysis and cell culture systems are insufficient to simulate in vivo physiological and pathological dynamics completely. Multiphoton microscopy (MPM) has become one of the most popular imaging modalities for biomedical study at cellular levels in vivo, advantages include high resolution, deep tissue penetration and minimal phototoxicity. We have designed an MPM imaging platform with a customized mouse eye holder and a stereotaxic stage for imaging ocular surface in vivo. Dual fluorescent protein reporter mouse enables visualization of cell nuclei, cell membranes, nerve fibers, and capillaries within the ocular surface. In addition to multiphoton fluorescence signals, acquiring second harmonic generation (SHG) simultaneously allows for the characterization of collagenous stromal architecture. This platform can be employed for intravital imaging with accurate positioning across the entire ocular surface, including cornea and conjunctiva.

Using this live imaging platform, the mouse ocular surface can be visualized at cellular levels. To visualize individual single cells in the ocular surface, we employed the dual fluorescent transgenic mice with EGFP expressed in the nucleus and tdTomato expressed in the cell membrane. The collagen-rich corneal stroma was highlighted by SHG signals.
In corneal epithelium, superficial cells, wing cells and basal cells (Figure 2) were visualized. In the dual fluoresc...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Custom Multiphoton Microscopy Platform for Live Imaging of Mouse Cornea and Conjunctiva at JoVE.com

A Custom Multiphoton Microscopy Platform for Live Imaging of Mouse Cornea and Conjunctiva

Presented here is a multiphoton microscopic platform for live mouse ocular surface imaging. Fluorescent transgenic mouse enables the visualization of cell nuclei, cell membranes, nerve fibers and capillaries within the ocular surface. Non-linear second harmonic generation signals derived from collagenous structures provide label-free imaging for stromal architectures.

Conventional histological analysis and cell culture systems are insufficient to simulate in vivo physiological and pathological dynamics completely. ...

Research

JoVE Journal

Bioengineering

Specimen Preparation, Imaging, and Analysis Protocols for Knife-edge Scanning Microscopy

Major advances in high-throughput, high-resolution, 3D microscopy techniques have enabled the acquisition of large volumes of neuroanatomical data at ...

Using Microfluidics Chips for Live Imaging and Study of Injury Responses in Drosophila Larvae

Using Microfluidics Chips for Live Imaging and Study of Injury Responses in Drosophila Larvae

Live imaging is an important technique for studying cell biological processes, however this can be challenging in live animals. The translucent cuticle of ...

Fluorescence-quenching of a Liposomal-encapsulated Near-infrared Fluorophore as a Tool for In Vivo Optical Imaging

Fluorescence-quenching of a Liposomal-encapsulated Near-infrared Fluorophore as a Tool for In Vivo Optical Imaging

Optical imaging offers a wide range of diagnostic modalities and has attracted a lot of interest as a tool for biomedical imaging. Despite the enormous ...

Atomic Force Microscopy Imaging and Force Spectroscopy of Supported Lipid Bilayers

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is a versatile, high-resolution imaging technique that allows visualization of biological membranes. It has sufficient ...

Visualizing Angiogenesis by Multiphoton Microscopy In Vivo in Genetically Modified 3D-PLGA/nHAp Scaffold for Calvarial Critical Bone Defect Repair

Visualizing Angiogenesis by Multiphoton Microscopy In Vivo in Genetically Modified 3D-PLGA/nHAp Scaffold for Calvarial Critical Bone Defect Repair

The reconstruction of critically sized bone defects remains a serious clinical problem because of poor angiogenesis within tissue-engineered scaffolds ...

Imaging the Root Hair Morphology of Arabidopsis Seedlings in a Two-layer Microfluidic Platform

Imaging the Root Hair Morphology of Arabidopsis Seedlings in a Two-layer Microfluidic Platform

Root hairs increase root surface area for better water uptake and nutrient absorption by the plant. Because they are small in size and often obscured by ...

Fabrication of Custom Agarose Wells for Cell Seeding and Tissue Ring Self-assembly Using 3D-Printed Molds

Engineered tissues are being used clinically for tissue repair and replacement, and are being developed as tools for drug screening and human disease ...

A Microfluidic Platform for Longitudinal Imaging in Caenorhabditis elegans

A Microfluidic Platform for Longitudinal Imaging in Caenorhabditis elegans

In the last decade, microfluidic techniques have been applied to study small animals, including the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, and have proved ...

Visualizing Adhesion Formation in Cells by Means of Advanced Spinning Disk-Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence Microscopy

In living cells, processes such as adhesion formation involve extensive structural changes in the plasma membrane and the cell interior. In order to ...