We want to acknowledge FONCYCYT of CONACYT (Mexico), the ministry of Foreign affairs of France and the Universit&#233; Paris 13, though the financial support of the international collaborative ECOS-NORD project named Nano-palpation for diagnosis, No. 263337 (Mexico) and MI5P02 (France). AMR would like to thank the financial support of SIP-IPN through the project No. 20195489. SPC is supported by a PhD fellowship from CONACYT (No. 288029) and IPN through the cotutelle agreement to obtain double PhD certificate (IPN-UPS). ED and CFD are researchers at Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS).

1. Microbial cell culture
<ol>
	<li>Revivify cells from a glycerol stock. 
	NOTE: C. albicans are stored at -80 &#176;C in glycerol stocks, on marbles.
	<ol>
		<li>Pick a marble in the -80 &#176;C stock and rub it on yeast peptone dextrose (YPD) agar. Grow the cells for 2 days at 30 &#176;C, before liquid cultivation.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Prepare liquid cultures.
	<ol>
		<li>Fill a culture tube with 5 mL of sterile YPD broth and add a single colony of C. albicans cells, grown on the YPD agar p...

<ol>
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H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+comparison+of+methods+to+assess+cell+mechanical+properties.">A comparison of methods to assess cell mechanical properties.</a> Nature Methods. 15 (7), 491-498 (2018).</li><li>Rigato, A., Rico, F., Eghiaian, F., Piel, M., Scheuring, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Atomic+Force+Microscopy+Mechanical+Mapping+of+Micropatterned+Cells+Shows+Adhesion+Geometry-Dependent+Mechanical+Response+on+Local+and+Global+Scales.">Atomic Force Microscopy Mechanical Mapping of Micropatterned Cells Shows Adhesion Geometry-Dependent Mechanical Response on Local and Global Scales.</a> ACS Nano. 9 (6), 5846-5856 (2015).</li><li>Favre, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Parallel+AFM+imaging+and+force+spectroscopy+using+two-dimensional+probe+arrays+for+applications+in+cell+biology.">Parallel AFM imaging and force spectroscopy using two-dimensional probe arrays for applications in cell biology.</a> Journal of Molecular Recognition. 24 (3), 446-452 (2011).</li><li>Dujardin, A., Wolf, P. D., Lafont, F., Dupres, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Automated+multi-sample+acquisition+and+analysis+using+atomic+force+microscopy+for+biomedical+applications.">Automated multi-sample acquisition and analysis using atomic force microscopy for biomedical applications.</a> PLOS ONE. 14 (3), 0213853 (2019).</li><li>Formosa, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Generation+of+living+cell+arrays+for+atomic+force+microscopy+studies.">Generation of living cell arrays for atomic force microscopy studies.</a> Nature Protocols. 10 (1), 199-204 (2015).</li><li>Proa-Coronado, S., S&#233;verac, C., Martinez-Rivas, A., Dague, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Beyond+the+paradigm+of+nanomechanical+measurements+on+cells+using+AFM:+an+automated+methodology+to+rapidly+analyse+thousands+of+cells.">Beyond the paradigm of nanomechanical measurements on cells using AFM: an automated methodology to rapidly analyse thousands of cells.</a> Nanoscale Horizons. , (2019).</li><li>Foncy, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comparison+of+polyurethane+and+epoxy+resist+master+mold+for+nanoscale+soft+lithography.">Comparison of polyurethane and epoxy resist master mold for nanoscale soft lithography.</a> Microelectronic Engineering. 110, 183-187 (2013).</li><li>Unsay, J. 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(101), e52867 (2015).</li><li>Schiavone, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+combined+chemical+and+enzymatic+method+to+determine+quantitatively+the+polysaccharide+components+in+the+cell+wall+of+yeasts.">A combined chemical and enzymatic method to determine quantitatively the polysaccharide components in the cell wall of yeasts.</a> FEMS Yeast Research. 14 (6), 933-947 (2014).</li><li>Formosa, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nanoscale+Effects+of+Caspofungin+against+Two+Yeast+Species,+Saccharomyces+cerevisiae+and+Candida+albicans.">Nanoscale Effects of Caspofungin against Two Yeast Species, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Candida albicans.</a> Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 57 (8), 3498-3506 (2013).</li><li>El-Kirat-Chatel, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nanoscale+analysis+of+caspofungin-induced+cell+surface+remodelling+in+Candida+albicans.">Nanoscale analysis of caspofungin-induced cell surface remodelling in Candida albicans.</a> Nanoscale. 5 (3), 1105-1115 (2013).</li><li>Peric, O., Hannebelle, M., Adams, J. D., Fantner, G. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Microfluidic+bacterial+traps+for+simultaneous+fluorescence+and+atomic+force+microscopy.">Microfluidic bacterial traps for simultaneous fluorescence and atomic force microscopy.</a> Nano Research. 10 (11), 3896-3908 (2017).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

The main improvement provided by this methodology is a significant increase in the number of measured cells in a determined amount of time. The counterpart is a reduction of the number of points measured per cell. It means that this method is not designed to provide a detailed analysis of a single cell. The method only applies to cells that can fit in the wells of the PDMS stamp. The stamp is quite versatile, while it contains wells of 1.5 x 1.5 &#181;m2 up to 6 x 6 &#181;m2. Still it is impossible ...

This work provides a methodology to perform automatic force measurements on hundreds of living cells using an atomic force microscope (AFM). It also provides a method to immobilize microbes on a PDMS microstructured stamp that is compatible with AFM experiments conducted in a liquid environment.
Bio-AFM is a highly specialized technology conceived for applications in biology and then used to study living cells. It requires a trained engineer who can analyze one cell at the time. In these conditions, the number of different cells that can be analyzed is rather small, typical 5 to 10 cells in 4-5 hours. However, the quantity of force measurements recorded on a single cell are usually very high and can easily reach 1000. Thus, the current paradigm of AFM force measurements on living cells is to record hundreds of force curves (FCs) but on a limited number of cells.
Statistically, this approach is questionable, and raises the issue of the representativeness of the sample. Indeed, it is difficult, for example, to evaluate the heterogeneity of a cell population by measuring only a few cells, even if hundreds of measurements are recorded on these few cells. However, it is on the basis of this paradigm that major advances have been made in biophysics, microbiology and nanomedicine1,2,3. Indeed, nanometer analysis at the scale of single cells has provided new information on cellular nanomechanics, on the organization of transmembrane proteins, or the action mechanism of antimicrobial or anticancer drugs4,5,6,7. Recently however, several high-throughput biomechanical tests conducted on cells have emerged8, showing the scientific community&#8217;s interest in changing this paradigm and accessing the cell population heterogeneity. These tests all rely on microfluidic systems to deform cells and optically measure their deformation under stress to obtain an indirect measure of their overall surface elasticity8. However, an important issue with these methods is that they are mono-parametric: only cell elasticity can be probed. Moreover, they do not allow the measurement of the mechanical parameters of adherent cells, which can be limiting for the studies of noncirculating mammalian cells or biofilms for example.
Approaches involving AFM have been developed by the teams of S. Scheuring9 and M. Favre10. Scheuring et al. immobilized cells on fibronectin patterns9, forcing individual cells to take the shape of the pattern9. Then this team mapped the mechanical properties of a few cells to define average data, representative of 14 to 18 cells. The development carried out by Farve et al. aimed at multiplexing the measurements by parallelizing the AFM cantilevers10. To our knowledge, this work in the multiplexing direction has not led to measurements on living cells.
An interesting approach proposed by Dujardin&#8217;s team presents an automated AFM capable of identifying cells and imaging them at the bottom of custom-made wells. Although this method does not allow for the analysis of a large population of cells, it allows the automatic testing of different conditions in each well11.
Our objective in this work is more ambitious since we wanted to measure at least 1000 cells to access not an average cell, but, on the contrary, the heterogeneity between cells. The strategy that we developed here to access cell population heterogeneity using AFM is based on the analysis of hundreds of cells on which a limited number of force curves are recorded. Compared to the &#8220;classical&#8221; approach of recording a large number of force curves on a limited number of cells, this approach should be considered as complementary since it does not provide the same information. Indeed, while the typical method allows one to probe individual cell surface heterogeneity, using our approach, we are able to access the entire cell population heterogeneity. To achieve this objective, we have combined a method that directly immobilizes microbes (here the yeast species Candida albicans) into the wells of a PDMS microstructured stamp12, and develops an original program for moving the AFM tip, automatically, from cell to cell13 and measuring the mechanical properties of each cell.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>AFM cantilever</td>
			<td>Bruker AFM probes</td>
			<td>MLCT</td>
			<td>The cantilevers used were the labeled &#8220;C&#8221; with resonant frequency of 7 to 10 kHz and k: 0.01 N/m</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>AFM data analysis</td>
			<td>JPK-Bruker</td>
			<td>JPK Data processing version minimum 5.1.8</td>
			<td>Can be downloaded from a JPK-Bruker user acount</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>AFM Petri dishes</td>
			<td>WPI</td>
			<td>FluoroDish FD35-100</td>
			<td>The heater was used to monitor the temperature changes during the experiment</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Atomic force Microscope (AFM)</td>
			<td>JPK-Bruker</td>
			<td>Nanowizard II or III</td>
			<td>the AFM should be mounted on an inverted optical microscope with a motorized stage</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Caspofungin</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>SML0425-5MG</td>
			<td>Caspofungin was used with a concentration of 4 MIC (Minimum Inhibitor Concentration)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Code editor</td>
			<td>Microsoft</td>
			<td>Visual Studio Code version 1.40.1</td>
			<td>https://code.visualstudio.com/</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cryobeads</td>
			<td>IFU</td>
			<td>CB12</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dessicator/Degassing chamber</td>
			<td>Fisherbrand</td>
			<td>15594635</td>
			<td>The equipment is used to degassing the PDMS stamps for about 50 minutes any dessicator coupled with a vaccum pump will do.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Petri dish heater</td>
			<td>JPK-Bruker</td>
			<td>PetriDishHeater</td>
			<td>This is an add-on to the JPK/Bruker AFM. The heater was used to monitor the temperature changes during the experiment</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium acetate buffer pH 5.2</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S7899</td>
			<td>The solution contains 18 mM sodium acetate, 1 mM CaCl2, and 1 mM MnCl2. Adjust the pH with glacial acetic acid. The solution can be stored at 4 &#176;C for 2 months</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Statistical analysis language</td>
			<td>https://www.r-project.org</td>
			<td>R version 3.6.1</td>
			<td>R is a language and environment for statistical computing and graphics. It is a GNU project which is similar to the S language and environment</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Statistical analysis software</td>
			<td>https://rstudio.com</td>
			<td>R studio version 1.1.463</td>
			<td>collaboration between the R Foundation, RStudio, Microsoft, TIBCO, Google, Oracle, HP and others. RStudio and Shiny are affiliated projects of the Foundation for Open Access Statistics</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sylgard 184</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>761028</td>
			<td>Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) and curing agent in one set</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Yeast Peptone D Broth</td>
			<td>Difco</td>
			<td>242820</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>YPD Agar</td>
			<td>Difco</td>
			<td>DF0427-17-6</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

automation of bio-atomic force microscope measurements on hundreds of c. albicans cells

The method presented in this paper aims to automate Bio-AFM experiments and the recording of force curves. Using this method, it is possible to record forces curves on 1000 cells in 4 hours automatically. To maintain a 4 hour analysis time, the number of force curves per cell is reduced to 9 or 16. The method combines a Jython based program and a strategy for assembling cells on defined patterns. The program, implemented on a commercial Bio-AFM, can center the tip on the first cell of the array and then move, automatically, from cell to cell while recording force curves on each cell. Using this methodology, it is possible to access the biophysical parameters of the cells such as their rigidity, their adhesive properties, etc. With the automation and the large number of cells analyzed, one can access the behavior of the cell population. This is a breakthrough in the Bio-AFM field where data have, so far, been recorded on only a few tens of cells.

We used the described protocol to analyze the effect of caspofungin on the biophysical properties of the opportunistic human pathogen C. albicans in its yeast form. Caspofungin is a last chance antifungal molecule used when other drugs are ineffective because of the resistance mechanisms cells develop towards antifungals. Its mechanism of action is based on the inhibition of the subunit Fks2 of the complex fks1/Fks2 responsible for the &#223; glucan synthesis. As &#223; glucans are a major component of the funga...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Automation of Bio-Atomic Force Microscope Measurements on Hundreds of C. albicans Cells at JoVE.com

Automation of Bio-Atomic Force Microscope Measurements on Hundreds of C. albicans Cells

This protocol aims to automate AFM measurements on hundreds of microbial cells. First, microbes are immobilized into PDMS stamp microstructures and then force spectroscopy measurements are performed automatically on hundreds of immobilized cells.

Automation of Bio-Atomic Force Microscope Measurements on Hundreds of C. albicans Cells

The method presented in this paper aims to automate Bio-AFM experiments and the recording of force curves. Using this method, it is possible to record ...

Atomic force microscope automation is a key innovation in the evolution of the technology towards biomedical applications. It also opens access to the investigation of the biomechanical properties of cell populations. Our method makes it possible to record AFM measurements for 1, 000 cell in four hours, compared to the usual methods, which take four hours to measure 10 cells, this is really a significant gain of time.If automation is a prerequisite to bringing this technology into hospital labs, this proof of concept protocol suggests its potential for use in the development of specific medical diagnostic strategies. This protocol uses a versatile PDMS stem that can be filled with various microbes allowing different systems to be explored. To prepare the PDMS stamp, mix 55 grams of PDMS pre-polymer solution at a 10 to one mass ratio in PDMs, oligomers, and curing agent and degas the resulting solution under vacuum at one times 10 to the negative one to one times 10 to the negative two bars for five to 10 minutes.When all of the traps bubbles have been removed, pour 20 grams of the degassed solution onto a silicon master mold to a two to three millimeter thickness and degas again. When all of the bubbles have been removed, reticulate the PDMS at 80 degrees Celsius for one hour and use a scalpel to cut the PDMS micro structured stamp parallel to the visible microstructure arrays. Then peel the stamp from the silicon master mold and place the stamp micro structure site up on a glass slide with the micro structures aligned with the side of the slide.To prepare the cells for the device, centrifuge 600 microliters of the cell suspension of interest and add 200 microliters of the supernatant onto the stamp. Degas the supernatant under vacuum for about 40 minutes. When all of the bubbles have been removed, replace the supernatant from the PDMS surface with 200 microliters of the resuspended cell solution for a 15 minute incubation at room temperature.To load the cells into the micro structures of the stamp, Use a glass slide held at a 30 to 50 degree angle to spread the cells across the stamp in both directions, several times as necessary. When a high filling rate of the microstructures has been achieved, use a pipette to remove the cell suspension and wash the three times with one milliliter of acetate buffer per wash to remove any untrapped cells. After the last wash, use nitrogen flow to dry the back of the sample and place the stamp in a Petri dish.Then add two milliliters of fresh acetate buffer to the dish. For atomic force microscopy of the cells, place the dish onto the atomic force microscope stage and center the stage at zero to zero. When the stage has been centered, move the dish into the microscope Petri dish holder and align the edge of the stamp so that it is perpendicular to the y-axis of the Petri dish holder.Then place the atomic microscope force head onto the stage, taking care that the stepper motors are sufficiently extended to avoid the tip crashing onto the stamp. For imaging, use the microscope knobs to center the atomic force microscope tip over the left corner of the 4.5 by 4.5 squared micro meter wells and select the force mapping mode in the microscope software. To set a 64 by 64 force map over a 100 by 100 micrometer area, set the relative set point to three to five nano Newtons, the Z length to four micrometers, the Z movement to constant duration, the extend time to 0.01 seconds, the extension delay to zero, the retraction delay to zero, the delay mode to constant force, the sample rate to 2048 Hertz.Uncheck Z closed loop and check square image. Set the fast access to 100 micrometers, the slow axis to 100 micrometers, the X offset to zero micrometer, the Y offset to zero micrometers, the grid angle to zero degrees, the pixels to 64 by 64, and the pixel ratio to one to one. Next open the automation software.In the pop-up window, select the path toward the script file. Enter the W1 coordinate in the P1 variable line 239 of the inputs box section of the gyfon script and the W2 coordinate value in the P2 variable line 241. Attribute the pitch value to the pitch variable line 245 of the script and input the well dimension, which can be determined from the design of the well patterns into the W-S variable line 248.Write path to the saving directory in line 251 to save the data at the desired place and set the total area variable line 254 to the desire to multiple end of the 100 micrometers. Then set the force curves matrix row and column recorded per well in the number scans variable line 257 and click run to start the program. To analyze the data, use the video studio code software to open the Python script and execute the copy files Python script to organize the force curve files into one folder.Input the path to the general folder where the data will be stored. to analyze the force curves, open the atomic force microscope manufacturer data processing software. In the file menu, select batch of spectroscopy curves.Next select file and load process, and select the stiffness process. Select the last step of the process and click keep and apply to all so that all of the force curves will receive the same treatment. To open the R script, load thee files containing the information extracted with the data processing software into the R studio software.In the environment window, click import dataset and from text reader in the pop-up window, click browse to locate the dot TSV file. Once the file has loaded, select code run region and run all to run all of the code. Here, typical histograms obtained using the protocol as demonstrated are shown.In this analysis, the stiffness repartition was recorded on 957 native cells, While in this analysis, the stiffness of 574 caspofungin treated cells were measured. Know that using hundreds of cells allows a bi-modal distribution of the values to be observed. In smaller samples, A single distribution is typically observed and can result in lack of observation of the population heterogeneity.A comparison of the two conditions highlights the effects of Caspofungin on reducing the cell stiffness. A revealed by ANOVA comparison of the native and treated cells, the two conditions exhibit highly, significantly different stiffnesses. This value was reached due to the large number of analyzed cells, providing a greater confidence in the obtained results.Adding the supernatant to the PDMS stamp before repeatedly flushing the cells into the wells until the stamp is full, is critical to the success of the analysis. In this proof of concept, Candida albicans cells were analyzed but the protocol can be applied to any group of pattern cells, molecules, or materials.

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Bioengineering

3.8K Views.  Université de Toulouse, CNRS, Toulouse, France. Atomic force microscope automation is a key innovation in the evolution of the technology towards biomedical applications. It also opens access to the investigation of the biomechanical properties of cell populations. Our method makes it possible to record AFM measurements for 1, 000 cell in four hours, compared to the usual methods, which take four hours to measure 10 cells, this is really a significant gain of time.If automation is a prerequisite to bringing this technology into hosp...