Name: automation of bio-atomic force microscope measurements on hundreds of c. albicans cells
Uploaded: 2021-04-02T13:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Automation of Bio-Atomic Force Microscope Measurements on Hundreds of C. albicans Cells at JoVE.com

We want to acknowledge FONCYCYT of CONACYT (Mexico), the ministry of Foreign affairs of France and the Universit&#233; Paris 13, though the financial support of the international collaborative ECOS-NORD project named Nano-palpation for diagnosis, No. 263337 (Mexico) and MI5P02 (France). AMR would like to thank the financial support of SIP-IPN through the project No. 20195489. SPC is supported by a PhD fellowship from CONACYT (No. 288029) and IPN through the cotutelle agreement to obtain double PhD certificate (IPN-UPS). ED and CFD are researchers at Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS).

1. Microbial cell culture
<ol>
	<li>Revivify cells from a glycerol stock. 
	NOTE: C. albicans are stored at -80 &#176;C in glycerol stocks, on marbles.
	<ol>
		<li>Pick a marble in the -80 &#176;C stock and rub it on yeast peptone dextrose (YPD) agar. Grow the cells for 2 days at 30 &#176;C, before liquid cultivation.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Prepare liquid cultures.
	<ol>
		<li>Fill a culture tube with 5 mL of sterile YPD broth and add a single colony of C. albicans cells, grown on the YPD agar p...

<ol>
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D., Lafont, F., Dupres, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Automated+multi-sample+acquisition+and+analysis+using+atomic+force+microscopy+for+biomedical+applications.">Automated multi-sample acquisition and analysis using atomic force microscopy for biomedical applications.</a> PLOS ONE. 14 (3), 0213853 (2019).</li><li>Formosa, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Generation+of+living+cell+arrays+for+atomic+force+microscopy+studies.">Generation of living cell arrays for atomic force microscopy studies.</a> Nature Protocols. 10 (1), 199-204 (2015).</li><li>Proa-Coronado, S., S&#233;verac, C., Martinez-Rivas, A., Dague, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Beyond+the+paradigm+of+nanomechanical+measurements+on+cells+using+AFM:+an+automated+methodology+to+rapidly+analyse+thousands+of+cells.">Beyond the paradigm of nanomechanical measurements on cells using AFM: an automated methodology to rapidly analyse thousands of cells.</a> Nanoscale Horizons. , (2019).</li><li>Foncy, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comparison+of+polyurethane+and+epoxy+resist+master+mold+for+nanoscale+soft+lithography.">Comparison of polyurethane and epoxy resist master mold for nanoscale soft lithography.</a> Microelectronic Engineering. 110, 183-187 (2013).</li><li>Unsay, J. 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The main improvement provided by this methodology is a significant increase in the number of measured cells in a determined amount of time. The counterpart is a reduction of the number of points measured per cell. It means that this method is not designed to provide a detailed analysis of a single cell. The method only applies to cells that can fit in the wells of the PDMS stamp. The stamp is quite versatile, while it contains wells of 1.5 x 1.5 &#181;m2 up to 6 x 6 &#181;m2. Still it is impossible ...

This work provides a methodology to perform automatic force measurements on hundreds of living cells using an atomic force microscope (AFM). It also provides a method to immobilize microbes on a PDMS microstructured stamp that is compatible with AFM experiments conducted in a liquid environment.
Bio-AFM is a highly specialized technology conceived for applications in biology and then used to study living cells. It requires a trained engineer who can analyze one cell at the time. In these conditions, the number of different cells that can be analyzed is rather small, typical 5 to 10 cells in 4-5 hours. However, the quantity of force measurements recorded on a single cell are usually very high and can easily reach 1000. Thus, the current paradigm of AFM force measurements on living cells is to record hundreds of force curves (FCs) but on a limited number of cells.
Statistically, this approach is questionable, and raises the issue of the representativeness of the sample. Indeed, it is difficult, for example, to evaluate the heterogeneity of a cell population by measuring only a few cells, even if hundreds of measurements are recorded on these few cells. However, it is on the basis of this paradigm that major advances have been made in biophysics, microbiology and nanomedicine1,2,3. Indeed, nanometer analysis at the scale of single cells has provided new information on cellular nanomechanics, on the organization of transmembrane proteins, or the action mechanism of antimicrobial or anticancer drugs4,5,6,7. Recently however, several high-throughput biomechanical tests conducted on cells have emerged8, showing the scientific community&#8217;s interest in changing this paradigm and accessing the cell population heterogeneity. These tests all rely on microfluidic systems to deform cells and optically measure their deformation under stress to obtain an indirect measure of their overall surface elasticity8. However, an important issue with these methods is that they are mono-parametric: only cell elasticity can be probed. Moreover, they do not allow the measurement of the mechanical parameters of adherent cells, which can be limiting for the studies of noncirculating mammalian cells or biofilms for example.
Approaches involving AFM have been developed by the teams of S. Scheuring9 and M. Favre10. Scheuring et al. immobilized cells on fibronectin patterns9, forcing individual cells to take the shape of the pattern9. Then this team mapped the mechanical properties of a few cells to define average data, representative of 14 to 18 cells. The development carried out by Farve et al. aimed at multiplexing the measurements by parallelizing the AFM cantilevers10. To our knowledge, this work in the multiplexing direction has not led to measurements on living cells.
An interesting approach proposed by Dujardin&#8217;s team presents an automated AFM capable of identifying cells and imaging them at the bottom of custom-made wells. Although this method does not allow for the analysis of a large population of cells, it allows the automatic testing of different conditions in each well11.
Our objective in this work is more ambitious since we wanted to measure at least 1000 cells to access not an average cell, but, on the contrary, the heterogeneity between cells. The strategy that we developed here to access cell population heterogeneity using AFM is based on the analysis of hundreds of cells on which a limited number of force curves are recorded. Compared to the &#8220;classical&#8221; approach of recording a large number of force curves on a limited number of cells, this approach should be considered as complementary since it does not provide the same information. Indeed, while the typical method allows one to probe individual cell surface heterogeneity, using our approach, we are able to access the entire cell population heterogeneity. To achieve this objective, we have combined a method that directly immobilizes microbes (here the yeast species Candida albicans) into the wells of a PDMS microstructured stamp12, and develops an original program for moving the AFM tip, automatically, from cell to cell13 and measuring the mechanical properties of each cell.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>AFM cantilever</td>
			<td>Bruker AFM probes</td>
			<td>MLCT</td>
			<td>The cantilevers used were the labeled &#8220;C&#8221; with resonant frequency of 7 to 10 kHz and k: 0.01 N/m</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>AFM data analysis</td>
			<td>JPK-Bruker</td>
			<td>JPK Data processing version minimum 5.1.8</td>
			<td>Can be downloaded from a JPK-Bruker user acount</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>AFM Petri dishes</td>
			<td>WPI</td>
			<td>FluoroDish FD35-100</td>
			<td>The heater was used to monitor the temperature changes during the experiment</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Atomic force Microscope (AFM)</td>
			<td>JPK-Bruker</td>
			<td>Nanowizard II or III</td>
			<td>the AFM should be mounted on an inverted optical microscope with a motorized stage</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Caspofungin</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>SML0425-5MG</td>
			<td>Caspofungin was used with a concentration of 4 MIC (Minimum Inhibitor Concentration)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Code editor</td>
			<td>Microsoft</td>
			<td>Visual Studio Code version 1.40.1</td>
			<td>https://code.visualstudio.com/</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cryobeads</td>
			<td>IFU</td>
			<td>CB12</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dessicator/Degassing chamber</td>
			<td>Fisherbrand</td>
			<td>15594635</td>
			<td>The equipment is used to degassing the PDMS stamps for about 50 minutes any dessicator coupled with a vaccum pump will do.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Petri dish heater</td>
			<td>JPK-Bruker</td>
			<td>PetriDishHeater</td>
			<td>This is an add-on to the JPK/Bruker AFM. The heater was used to monitor the temperature changes during the experiment</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium acetate buffer pH 5.2</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S7899</td>
			<td>The solution contains 18 mM sodium acetate, 1 mM CaCl2, and 1 mM MnCl2. Adjust the pH with glacial acetic acid. The solution can be stored at 4 &#176;C for 2 months</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Statistical analysis language</td>
			<td>https://www.r-project.org</td>
			<td>R version 3.6.1</td>
			<td>R is a language and environment for statistical computing and graphics. It is a GNU project which is similar to the S language and environment</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Statistical analysis software</td>
			<td>https://rstudio.com</td>
			<td>R studio version 1.1.463</td>
			<td>collaboration between the R Foundation, RStudio, Microsoft, TIBCO, Google, Oracle, HP and others. RStudio and Shiny are affiliated projects of the Foundation for Open Access Statistics</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sylgard 184</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>761028</td>
			<td>Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) and curing agent in one set</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Yeast Peptone D Broth</td>
			<td>Difco</td>
			<td>242820</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>YPD Agar</td>
			<td>Difco</td>
			<td>DF0427-17-6</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

automation of bio-atomic force microscope measurements on hundreds of c. albicans cells

The method presented in this paper aims to automate Bio-AFM experiments and the recording of force curves. Using this method, it is possible to record forces curves on 1000 cells in 4 hours automatically. To maintain a 4 hour analysis time, the number of force curves per cell is reduced to 9 or 16. The method combines a Jython based program and a strategy for assembling cells on defined patterns. The program, implemented on a commercial Bio-AFM, can center the tip on the first cell of the array and then move, automatically, from cell to cell while recording force curves on each cell. Using this methodology, it is possible to access the biophysical parameters of the cells such as their rigidity, their adhesive properties, etc. With the automation and the large number of cells analyzed, one can access the behavior of the cell population. This is a breakthrough in the Bio-AFM field where data have, so far, been recorded on only a few tens of cells.

We used the described protocol to analyze the effect of caspofungin on the biophysical properties of the opportunistic human pathogen C. albicans in its yeast form. Caspofungin is a last chance antifungal molecule used when other drugs are ineffective because of the resistance mechanisms cells develop towards antifungals. Its mechanism of action is based on the inhibition of the subunit Fks2 of the complex fks1/Fks2 responsible for the &#223; glucan synthesis. As &#223; glucans are a major component of the funga...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Automation of Bio-Atomic Force Microscope Measurements on Hundreds of C. albicans Cells at JoVE.com

Automation of Bio-Atomic Force Microscope Measurements on Hundreds of C. albicans Cells

This protocol aims to automate AFM measurements on hundreds of microbial cells. First, microbes are immobilized into PDMS stamp microstructures and then force spectroscopy measurements are performed automatically on hundreds of immobilized cells.

Automation of Bio-Atomic Force Microscope Measurements on Hundreds of C. albicans Cells

The method presented in this paper aims to automate Bio-AFM experiments and the recording of force curves. Using this method, it is possible to record ...

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