This research has been partially supported by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation [Grant MTM2014-52876-R], [MTM2017-82724-R] and by Xunta de Galicia (Unidad Mixta de Investigaci&#243;n UDC-Navantia [IN853B-2018/02]). We would like to thank TA Instruments for the image showing the scheme of the rheometer used. This image is included in the Table of Materials of the article.&#160;We also would like to thank Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry for its permission for using some data from reference [16],&#160;and the Centro de Investigaciones Cient&#237;ficas Avanzadas (CICA) for using its facilities.

1. Checking the manufacturer curing conditions
<ol>
	<li>Cure the adhesive sample following the manufacturer recommendations, and then evaluate it by a TGA and a DSC test. Record the specific curing conditions.</li>
	<li>TGA test of cured sample
	<ol>
		<li>Perform thermogravimetric tests in a TGA or in a simultaneous DSC+TGA equipment (SDT).</li>
		<li>Carry out a thermogravimetric test of the cured sample following the next steps&#160;to determine the inorganic filler content and the temperature at which the material starts to degrade. Do not exceed that temperature in further tests.</li>
		<li>Open the air stopcock. Switch on the SDT (or TGA) apparatus. Open the SDT control software.</li>
		<li>Open the furnace of the SDT and place two empty capsules: one will be the reference capsule and the other will contain the sample.</li>
		<li>Close the furnace and press the bottom Tare.</li>
		<li>Open the furnace and place a sample size of 10-20 mg in the sample capsule.</li>
		<li>Fill the information about the sample in the tab Summary.</li>
		<li>Open the tab Procedure and click Editor. Drag the segment type Ramp to the Editor screen. Establish the ramp as 10 or 20 &#176;C/min to 900 &#176;C. Click OK.</li>
		<li>Open the tab Notes. Choose Air as the purge gas and establish a flow rate of 100 mL/min. Click Apply. 
		NOTE: TGA test has two objectives: 1) to determine the inorganic filler content and 2) to determine the temperature at which the material starts to degrade. For the first objective the test has to be performed in an air atmosphere. For the second one, an air atmosphere represents the most common situation in normal use.</li>
		<li>Close the furnace.</li>
		<li>Start the experiment.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>DSC test of cured sample
	<ol>
		<li>Carry out the DSC tests on a standard DSC or on a modulated temperature DSC (MTDSC) instrument working in standard mode, use aluminum crucibles. Carry out a DSC test of the cured sample following the next steps to study the following parameters: the Tg of the material, a possible residual curing and the Tg&#8734; of the sample.</li>
		<li>Open the nitrogen stopcock. Switch on the DSC apparatus. Open the control software of the DSC instrument.</li>
		<li>Click Control | Event | On. Then click the tab Tool | Instrument Preferences, choose DSC and establish a standby temperature of 30 &#176;C.</li>
		<li>Click Apply. Click the tab Control | Go to Standby Temperature and wait for at least 45 min before starting any experiment.</li>
		<li>Open the tab Summary. Click Mode and choose Standard.</li>
		<li>Open the tab Procedure, click Test and choose Custom. Click Editor.</li>
		<li>Drag an Equilibrate segment indicating the temperature at which to start the experiment (that temperature should be relatively low, for example -80 or -60 &#176;C).</li>
		<li>Drag the segment type Ramp to the Editor screen. Introduce a heating rate of 10 or 20 &#176;C/min and the final temperature into the command editor window. The final temperature is tentatively chosen to allow for a complete cure and must be lower than the degradation temperature obtained from the previous TGA test. 
		NOTE: These recommended heating rates are proposed as a starting point that will probably work fine in most cases. However, these heating rates can be modified to improve sensitivity or resolution.</li>
		<li>Drag the segment type Ramp to the Editor screen. Similarly, to the previous step, introduce a 10 or 20 &#176;C/min cooling rate to a temperature tentatively below the glass transition.</li>
		<li>Drag the segment type Ramp to the Editor screen. Introduce a 10 or 20 &#176;C/min heating rate to a temperature slightly below the degradation temperature.</li>
		<li>Open the tab Notes. Choose Nitrogen as the flow gas and establish a flow rate of 50 mL/min. Click Apply.</li>
		<li>Fill the information about the sample in the tab Summary.</li>
		<li>Click Control | Lid | Open. Place a reference pan and a pan with a sample of 10-20 mg weight inside the DSC cell.</li>
		<li>Launch the experiment by clicking Start.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
2. DSC analysis of a fresh sample
<ol>
	<li>Prepare a fresh sample of the adhesive using the ratios and procedures recommended by manufacturer and immediately subject it to the following tests.</li>
	<li>Ramp curing test
	<ol>
		<li>Perform a heating-cooling-heating test as indicated below to obtain the curing enthalpy of the adhesive, the final glass transition on heating and to establish the range of temperatures where the curing process starts.</li>
		<li>Open the tab Summary. Click Mode and choose Standard.</li>
		<li>Click the tab Tool | Instrument Preferences, choose DSC and establish a standby temperature of 10 &#176;C. Click Apply. Click the tab Control | Go to Standby Temperature,</li>
		<li>Open the tab Procedure, click Test and choose Custom. Click Editor. Drag the segment type Equilibrate at -80 &#176;C to the Editor screen. Drag the segment Ramp and establish 10 or 20 &#176;C/min to (a temperature slightly below the degradation temperature obtained from the TGA test).</li>
		<li>Insert the segment Equilibrate at -80 &#176;C. Then drag the segment Ramp, establish 10 or 20 &#176;C/min to (the same temperature as before). Click Ok.</li>
		<li>Fill the information about the sample in the tab Summary.</li>
		<li>Click Control | Lid | Open. Place a reference pan and a pan with the freshly prepared sample of 10-20 mg weight inside the furnace.</li>
		<li>Start the experiment.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Isothermal curing test
	<ol>
		<li>Taking into account the DSC plot of the curing in ramp, choose several temperatures at the beginning of the exotherm to execute the isothermal experiments. 
		NOTE: The isothermal experiments will allow to evaluate the maximum degree of curing that can be obtained at each temperature.</li>
		<li>Open the Summary tab. Click Mode and choose Standard.</li>
		<li>Open the Procedure tab, click Test and choose Custom. Click Editor. Drag the segment type Ramp to the Editor screen. Introduce a 20 &#176;C/min to the chosen isothermal temperature.</li>
		<li>Introduce an Isothermal segment for time enough to complete the cure at this temperature. It is possible, for example, to establish 300 min, but the test can be stopped when the heat flow curve is flat.</li>
		<li>Introduce a command segment Equilibrate at 0 &#176;C. Add a Ramp segment, establish a heating rate between 2 and 20 &#176;C/min (in the example 2.5 &#176;C/min was chosen) to the maximum temperature, which was chosen from the TGA test in order not to compromise the thermal stability of the adhesive.</li>
		<li>Drag the Mark end of cycle segment to the editor window. Insert another Equilibrate segment, this time with a temperature of -80 &#176;C. Add another Ramp segment with a heating rate between 2 and 20 &#176;C/min (in the example 2.5 &#176;C/min was chosen) to the same temperature indicated before. Click Ok. 
		NOTE: A set of heating rates are suggested. Probably, most of them work correctly and depending of the nature of the curing process, mainly its kinetics, and the sensitivity and resolution required, some of these heating rates could be better. If the evaluation is done with comparative purposes the same conditions should be used for each studied adhesive system. In order to minimize the time elapsed from mixing the components to the beginning of the isothermal experiments, the temperature of the DSC cell should be adjusted to a temperature lower than the isothermal temperature before mixing both components.</li>
		<li>Click the tab Tool | Instrument Preferences, choose DSC and establish a temperature lower than the isotherm temperature of the experiment. Click Apply. Click the tab Control | Go to Standby Temperature.</li>
		<li>Fill the information about the sample in the tab Summary.</li>
		<li>Click Control | Lid | Open. Place a reference pan and a pan with the sample of 10-20 mg weight inside the furnace.</li>
		<li>Start the experiment.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
3. Rheological analysis
<ol>
	<li>Perform the rheological tests on a rheometer, using a 25 mm parallel plate geometry.</li>
	<li>Logarithmic strain sweep test
	<ol>
		<li>Do an exploratory logarithmic strain sweep test&#160;following the steps below to set up the strain amplitude to be used in the curing study of the adhesive in the rheometer. Perform the test with a fresh sample (before curing).</li>
		<li>Open the air stopcock. Switch on the rheometer apparatus. Open the rheometer control software.</li>
		<li>Place the specific geometry on the rheometer.</li>
		<li>Click Zero Gap.</li>
		<li>Click the tab Geometry. Choose the specific geometry.</li>
		<li>Open the tab Experiment.</li>
		<li>Fill the information about the sample in the tab Sample.</li>
		<li>Click the tab Procedure. Choose Oscillation Amplitude. This experiment can be performed at room temperature (the actual temperature is annotated), and with a frequency of 1 Hz and a logarithmic sweep from 10-3 to 100% of strain. 
		NOTE: To prepare a sample of the two-component system, weigh components at room temperature, about 20 &#176;C to the exact proportions recommended by the manufacturer. Then mix both components.</li>
		<li>Place the sample on the bottom plate with the upper plate separated about 40 mm from the lower plate. Lower the upper plate until a gap of about 2 mm is observed between both plates. Trim off the excess adhesive.</li>
		<li>Start the experiment.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Isothermal multifrequency curing test 
	NOTE: This test shows if there is or not gelation and, in case of gelation, it provides the gelation time. In addition, the contraction and the evolution of G&#8217; and G&#8217;&#8217; can be observed along the curing process.
	<ol>
		<li>Follow the subsequent procedure to monitor the curing of the adhesive.</li>
		<li>Click the tab Procedure. Choose Conditioning Options. Establish the Mode Compression, Axial Force 0 N and Sensitivity of 0.1 N. Click Advance and establish a Gap change limit of 2000 &#181;m in the up and down directions.</li>
		<li>Insert a new step of an oscillatory time sweep. This experiment can be performed at room temperature (the actual temperature is annotated), the duration of the test as a function of the estimated curing time based on the Data Sheet of the adhesive, and the percentage of Strain which is chosen from the result of the previous logarithmic strain sweep test. Choose Discrete and then set the frequencies 1, 3 and 10 Hz for all samples.</li>
		<li>Remove the previous sample, do the Zero Gap and place a new sample. Then proceed as in step 3.2.9.</li>
		<li>Start the experiment. 
		NOTE: Do not remove the sample at the end of experiment. It will be used in the next experiment.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Torque sweep test
	<ol>
		<li>Once the curing test ends, proceed to the torque sweep test&#160;following the steps below to find out the linear viscoelastic range for the previously cured material. 
		NOTE: The extension of LVR can be determined either by applying strain sweep test, mostly in controlled-strain rheometers, or torque or stress sweep test, mostly in controlled-stress rheometer. However, in some rheometers both methods can be used.</li>
		<li>Click the tab Procedure. Choose the Oscillation Amplitude. This experiment can be performed at room temperature (the actual temperature is annotated), with a frequency of 1 Hz and a logarithmic sweep from 10 to 10000 &#181;Nm of torque. 
		NOTE: Use the same sample that was left in the instrument from the previous experiment.</li>
		<li>Start the experiment. 
		NOTE: Do not remove the sample at the end of experiment. It will be used in the next experiment.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Temperature scan test
	<ol>
		<li>Perform a temperature scan test following the steps below to verify the cure is complete.</li>
		<li>Click the tab Procedure. Choose Temperature Ramp. Initiate the experiment from room temperature, establish a ramp rate of 1 &#176;C/min, which ensure a uniform distribution of temperature into the sample without consuming too excessive time, a frequency of 1 Hz and a given Torque amplitude, which is chosen from the previous Torque sweep test. 
		NOTE: Use the same sample that was left in the instrument from the previous experiment.</li>
		<li>Close the furnace of the rheometer. Open the air stopcock of the furnace.</li>
		<li>Start the experiment. 
		NOTE: If the next experiment is needed, do not remove the sample at the end of experiment. In that case it would be used for the next experiment.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

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The authors have nothing to disclose.

A preliminary TGA test of each adhesive is always a fundamental step as it gives information about the temperature range at which the material is stable. That information is crucial to correctly setting up further experiments. In addition, TGA may also inform about the filler content, which can be very insightful to understand that storage and loss modulus may not to cross along the cure.
On the other hand, DSC allows to study the cure of most thermosetting systems but not of those whose cure ...

Nowadays there is an increasing demand of adhesives. Today&#39;s industry demands that adhesives have increasingly varied properties, adapted to the growing diversity of possible new applications. It makes the selection of the most suitable option for each specific case a difficult task. Therefore, creating a standard methodology to characterize the adhesives according to their properties would facilitate the selection process. The analysis of the adhesive during the curing process and the final properties of the cured system are crucial to decide whether an adhesive is valid or not for a certain application.
Two of the most commonly used experimental techniques to study the behavior of adhesives are Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) and Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA). Rheological measurements and thermogravimetric tests are also widely used. Through them, the glass transition temperature (Tg) and the residual heat of curing, which are related to the degree of cure1,2, can be determined.
TGA provides information about the thermal stability of the adhesives3,4, which is very useful to establish further process conditions, on the other hand rheological measurements allows the determination of the gel time of the adhesive, analysis of the curing shrinkage, and the definition of the viscoelastic properties of a cured sample5,6,7, while the DSC technique allows measurement of the residual heat of curing, and discernment between one or more thermal processes that can take place simultaneously during the curing8,9. Therefore, the combination of DSC, TGA and rheological methodologies provide detailed and reliable information to develop a complete characterization of adhesives.
There is a number of studies of adhesives where DSC and TGA are applied together10,11,12. There are also some studies that complement the DSC with rheological measurements13,14,15. However, there is not a standardized protocol to address the comparison of adhesives in a systematic way. That comparison would all to better choose the right adhesives in different contexts. In this work, an experimental methodology is proposed for doing a characterization of the curing process through the combined use of the thermal analysis and rheology. Applying these techniques as an ensemble allows to gather information about the adhesive behavior during and after the curing process, also the thermal stability and the Tg of the material16.
The proposed methodology involving the three techniques, DSC, TGA and rheology is described in this work using three commercial adhesives as an example. One of the adhesives, hereinafter referred to as S2c, is a two-component adhesive: component A contains tetrahydrofurfuryl methacrylate and component B contains benzoyl peroxide. The component B acts as an initiator of the curing reaction by causing the tetrahydrofurfuryl methacrylate rings to open. Through a free radical polymerization mechanism, the C=C bond of the monomer reacts with the growing radical to form a chain with tetrahydrofurfuryl side groups17. The other adhesives, T1c and T2c, are the one- and two-component versions from the same commercial house of a modified silane polymer adhesive. The curing process begins by the hydrolysis of the silane group18, which can be initiated by ambient humidity (as in the case of T1c) or by the addition of a second component (as in the case of T2c).
Concerning the application areas of these three different systems: the adhesive S2c was designed to substitute, in some cases, welding, riveting, clinching and other mechanical fastening techniques and it is suitable for high strength fastening of concealed joints on different types of substrates including top coats, plastics, glass, etc. The T1c and T2c adhesives are used for elastic bonding of metals and plastics: in caravan manufacturing, in the railroad vehicle industry or in shipbuilding.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>2960 SDT</td>
			<td>TA Instruments</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Simultaneous DSC/TGA device: Used to perform thermogravimetric tests.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Discovery HR-2</td>
			<td>TA Instruments</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Rheometer to perform rheological test.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MDSC Q2000</td>
			<td>TA Instruments</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Differential Scanning Calorimeter with optional temperature modulation. Used to peform DSC and MDSC tests.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sikafast 5211NT</td>
			<td>Sika</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>S2c: a two component system manufactured by Sika. It is based on tetrahydrofurfuryl methacrylate and contains an ethoxylated aromatic amine. 
			The second component contains benzoyl peroxide as the initiator for the crosslinking reaction.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Teroson MS 939 FR</td>
			<td>Henkel</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>T1c: manufactured by Henkel, which is a one component sylil-modified-polymer, whose cure reaction is triggered by moisture.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Teroson MS 9399</td>
			<td>Henkel</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>T2c: a two component system manufactured by Henkel. It is a sylil-modified-polymer too but the second component is aimed to make the curing rate a little more independent from the moisture content of air.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TRIOS</td>
			<td>TA Instruments</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Control Software for the rheometer. Version 4.4.0.41651</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

evaluation of the curing of adhesive systems by rheological and thermal testing

The analysis of thermal processes associated to the curing of adhesives and the study of mechanical behavior once cured, provide key information to choose the best option for any specific application. The proposed methodology for the curing characterization, based on thermal analysis and rheology, is described through the comparison of three commercial adhesives. The experimental techniques used here are Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA), Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) and Rheology. TGA provides information about the thermal stability and filler content, DSC allows the evaluation of some thermal events associated to the cure reaction and to thermal changes of the cured material when subjected to temperature changes. Rheology complements the information of the thermal transformations from a mechanical point of view. Thus, the curing reaction can be tracked through the elastic modulus (mainly the storage modulus), the phase angle and the gap. In addition, it is also shown that although DSC is of no use to study the curing of moisture curable adhesives, it is a very convenient method to evaluate the low temperature glass transition of amorphous systems.

In order to show the application of the proposed method three adhesive systems are used (Table of Materials):
<ul>
	<li>S2c, a two-component system.</li>
	<li>T1c, a one-component silane-modified-polymer, whose cure reaction is triggered by moisture.</li>
	<li>T2c, a two-component system. It is a silane-modified-polymer too, but the second component is aimed to make the curing rate a little more independent from the moisture content of air.</li>
</ul>
The thermal stability and...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Evaluation of the Curing of Adhesive Systems by Rheological and Thermal Testing at JoVE.com

Evaluation of the Curing of Adhesive Systems by Rheological and Thermal Testing

An experimental methodology based on thermal and rheological measurements is proposed to characterize the curing process of adhesives with to obtain useful information for industrial adhesive selection.

The analysis of thermal processes associated to the curing of adhesives and the study of mechanical behavior once cured, provide key information to choose ...

evaluation-curing-adhesive-systems-rheological-thermal

Research

JoVE Journal

Engineering

6.2K Views.  Universidade da Coruña. An experimental methodology based on thermal and rheological measurements is proposed to characterize the curing process of adhesives with to obtain useful information for industrial adhesive selection.

Video: Evaluation of the Curing of Adhesive Systems by Rheological and Thermal Testing

Characterization of Surface Modifications by White Light Interferometry: Applications in Ion Sputtering, Laser Ablation, and Tribology Experiments

In materials science and engineering it is often necessary to obtain quantitative measurements of surface topography with micrometer lateral resolution. From the measured surface, 3D topographic maps can be subsequently analyzed using a variety of software packages to extract the information that is needed.
In this article we describe how white light interferometry, and optical profilometry (OP) in general, combined with generic surface analysis software, can be used for materials science and engineering tasks. In this article, a number of applications of white light interferometry for investigation of surface modifications in mass spectrometry, and wear phenomena in tribology and lubrication are demonstrated. We characterize the products of the interaction of semiconductors and metals with energetic ions (sputtering), and laser irradiation (ablation), as well as ex situ measurements of wear of tribological test specimens.
Specifically, we will discuss:
<ol class="lroman">
	<li>Aspects of traditional ion sputtering-based mass spectrometry such as sputtering rates/yields measurements on Si and Cu and subsequent time-to-depth conversion.</li>
	<li>Results of quantitative characterization of the interaction of femtosecond laser irradiation with a semiconductor surface. These results are important for applications such as ablation mass spectrometry, where the quantities of evaporated material can be studied and controlled via pulse duration and energy per pulse. Thus, by determining the crater geometry one can define depth and lateral resolution versus experimental setup conditions.</li>
	<li>Measurements of surface roughness parameters in two dimensions, and quantitative measurements of the surface wear that occur as a result of friction and wear tests.</li>
</ol>
Some inherent drawbacks, possible artifacts, and uncertainty assessments of the white light interferometry approach will be discussed and explained.

White light microscope interferometry is an optical, noncontact and quick method for measuring the topography of surfaces. It is shown how the method can be applied toward mechanical wear analysis, where wear scars on tribological test samples are analyzed; and in materials science to determine ion beam sputtering or laser ablation volumes and depths.

In materials science and engineering it is often necessary to obtain quantitative measurements of surface topography with micrometer lateral resolution. ...

Fabrication of VB2/Air Cells for Electrochemical Testing

A technique to investigate the properties and performance of new multi-electron metal/air battery systems is proposed and presented. A method for synthesizing nanoscopic VB2 is presented as well as step-by-step procedure for applying a zirconium oxide coating to the VB2 particles for stabilization upon discharge. The process for disassembling existing zinc/air cells is shown, in addition construction of the new working electrode to replace the conventional zinc/air cell anode with a the nanoscopic VB2 anode. Finally, discharge of the completed VB2/air battery is reported. We show that using the zinc/air cell as a test bed is useful to provide a consistent configuration to study the performance of the high-energy high capacity nanoscopic VB2 anode.

Fabrication of VB2/Air Cells for Electrochemical Testing

A protocol is presented to study multi-electron metal/air battery systems by using previous technology developed for the zinc/air cell. Electrochemical testing is then performed on fabricated batteries to evaluate performance.

A technique to investigate the properties and performance of new multi-electron metal/air battery systems is proposed and presented. A method for ...

The Preparation of Electrohydrodynamic Bridges from Polar Dielectric Liquids

Horizontal and vertical liquid bridges are simple and powerful tools for exploring the interaction of high intensity electric fields (8-20 kV/cm) and polar dielectric liquids. These bridges are unique from capillary bridges in that they exhibit extensibility beyond a few millimeters, have complex bi-directional mass transfer patterns, and emit non-Planck infrared radiation. A number of common solvents can form such bridges as well as low conductivity solutions and colloidal suspensions. The macroscopic behavior is governed by electrohydrodynamics and provides a means of studying fluid flow phenomena without the presence of rigid walls. Prior to the onset of a liquid bridge several important phenomena can be observed including advancing meniscus height (electrowetting), bulk fluid circulation (the Sumoto effect), and the ejection of charged droplets (electrospray). The interaction between surface, polarization, and displacement forces can be directly examined by varying applied voltage and bridge length. The electric field, assisted by gravity, stabilizes the liquid bridge against Rayleigh-Plateau instabilities. Construction of basic apparatus for both vertical and horizontal orientation along with operational examples, including thermographic images, for three liquids (e.g., water, DMSO, and glycerol) is presented.

Horizontal and vertical electrohydrodynamic liquid bridges are simple and powerful tools for exploring the interaction of high intensity electric fields and polar dielectric liquids. The construction of basic apparatus and operational examples, including thermographic images, for three liquids (e.g., water, DMSO, and glycerol) is presented.

Horizontal and vertical liquid bridges are simple and powerful tools for exploring the interaction of high intensity electric fields (8-20 kV/cm) and ...

Making Record-efficiency SnS Solar Cells by Thermal Evaporation and Atomic Layer Deposition

Tin sulfide (SnS) is a candidate absorber material for Earth-abundant, non-toxic solar cells. SnS offers easy phase control and rapid growth by congruent thermal evaporation, and it absorbs visible light strongly. However, for a long time the record power conversion efficiency of SnS solar cells remained below 2%. Recently we demonstrated new certified record efficiencies of 4.36% using SnS deposited by atomic layer deposition, and 3.88% using thermal evaporation. Here the fabrication procedure for these record solar cells is described, and the statistical distribution of the fabrication process is reported. The standard deviation of efficiency measured on a single substrate is typically over 0.5%. All steps including substrate selection and cleaning, Mo sputtering for the rear contact (cathode), SnS deposition, annealing, surface passivation, Zn(O,S) buffer layer selection and deposition, transparent conductor (anode) deposition, and metallization are described. On each substrate we fabricate 11 individual devices, each with active area 0.25 cm2. Further, a system for high throughput measurements of current-voltage curves under simulated solar light, and external quantum efficiency measurement with variable light bias is described. With this system we are able to measure full data sets on all 11 devices in an automated manner and in minimal time. These results illustrate the value of studying large sample sets, rather than focusing narrowly on the highest performing devices. Large data sets help us to distinguish and remedy individual loss mechanisms affecting our devices.

Tin sulfide (SnS) is a candidate material for Earth-abundant, non-toxic solar cells. Here, we demonstrate the fabrication procedure of the SnS solar cells employing atomic layer deposition, which yields 4.36% certified power conversion efficiency, and thermal evaporation which yields 3.88%.

Tin sulfide (SnS) is a candidate absorber material for Earth-abundant, non-toxic solar cells. SnS offers easy phase control and rapid growth by congruent ...

Challenges in Rheological Characterization of Highly Concentrated Suspensions &#8212; A Case Study for Screen-printing Silver Pastes

A comprehensive rheological characterization of highly concentrated suspensions or pastes is mandatory for a targeted product development meeting the manifold requirements during processing and application of such complex fluids. In this investigation, measuring protocols for a conclusive assessment of different process relevant rheological parameters have been evaluated. This includes the determination of yield stress, viscosity, wall slip velocity, structural recovery after large deformation and elongation at break as well as tensile force during filament stretching.
The importance of concomitant video recordings during parallel-plate rotational rheometry for a significant determination of rheological quantities is demonstrated. The deformation profile and flow field at the sample edge can be determined using appropriate markers. Thus, measurement parameter settings and plate roughness values can be identified for which yield stress and viscosity measurements are possible. Slip velocity can be measured directly and measuring conditions at which plug flow, shear banding or sample spillover occur can be identified clearly. 
Video recordings further confirm that the change in shear moduli observed during three stage oscillatory shear tests with small deformation amplitude in stage I and III but large oscillation amplitude in stage II can be directly attributed to structural break down and recovery. For the pastes investigated here, the degree of irreversible, shear-induced structural change increases with increasing deformation amplitude in stage II until a saturation is reached at deformations corresponding to the crossover of G' and G'', but the irreversible damage is independent of the duration of large amplitude shear. 
A capillary breakup elongational rheometer and a tensile tester have been used to characterize deformation and breakup behavior of highly filled pastes in uniaxial elongation. Significant differences were observed in all experiments described above for two commercial screen-printing silver pastes used for front side metallization of Si-solar cells.

Challenges in Rheological Characterization of Highly Concentrated Suspensions &amp;#8212; A Case Study for Screen-printing Silver Pastes

A protocol for a robust and application relevant rheological characterization of highly concentrated suspensions is presented. Silver pastes used for screen-printing application in solar cell production are employed as model systems.

A comprehensive rheological characterization of highly concentrated suspensions or pastes is mandatory for a targeted product development meeting the ...

Fabrication of 3D Carbon Microelectromechanical Systems (C-MEMS)

A wide range of carbon sources are available in nature, with a variety of micro-/nanostructure configurations. Here, a novel technique to fabricate long and hollow glassy carbon microfibers derived from human hairs is introduced. The long and hollow carbon structures were made by the pyrolysis of human hair at 900 &#176;C in a N2 atmosphere. The morphology and chemical composition of natural and pyrolyzed human hairs were investigated using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and electron-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), respectively, to estimate the physical and chemical changes due to pyrolysis. Raman spectroscopy was used to confirm the glassy nature of the carbon microstructures. Pyrolyzed hair carbon was introduced to modify screen-printed carbon electrodes ; the modified electrodes were then applied to the electrochemical sensing of dopamine and ascorbic acid. Sensing performance of the modified sensors was improved as compared to the unmodified sensors. To obtain the desired carbon structure design, carbon micro-/nanoelectromechanical system (C-MEMS/C-NEMS) technology was developed. The most common C-MEMS/C-NEMS fabrication process consists of two steps: (i) the patterning of a carbon-rich base material, such as a photosensitive polymer, using photolithography; and (ii) carbonization through the pyrolysis of the patterned polymer in an oxygen-free environment. The C-MEMS/NEMS process has been widely used to develop microelectronic devices for various applications, including in micro-batteries, supercapacitors, glucose sensors, gas sensors, fuel cells, and triboelectric nanogenerators. Here, recent developments of a high-aspect ratio solid and hollow carbon microstructures with SU8 photoresists are discussed. The structural shrinkage during pyrolysis was investigated using confocal microscopy and SEM. Raman spectroscopy was used to confirm the crystallinity of the structure, and the atomic percentage of the elements present in the material before and after pyrolysis was measured using EDX.

Fabrication of 3D Carbon Microelectromechanical Systems C-MEMS

Long and hollow glassy carbon microfibers were fabricated based on the pyrolysis of a natural product, human hair. The two fabrication steps of carbon microelectromechanical and carbon nanoelectromechanical systems, or C-MEMS and C-NEMS, are: (i) photolithography of a carbon-rich polymer precursor and (ii) pyrolysis of the patterned polymer precursor.

A wide range of carbon sources are available in nature, with a variety of micro-/nanostructure configurations. Here, a novel technique to fabricate long ...

Subsurface Defect Localization by Structured Heating Using Laser Projected Photothermal Thermography

The presented method is used to locate subsurface defects oriented perpendicularly to the surface. To achieve this, we create destructively interfering thermal wave fields that are disturbed by the defect. This effect is measured and used to locate the defect. We form the destructively interfering wave fields by using a modified projector. The original light engine of the projector is replaced with a fiber-coupled high-power diode laser. Its beam is shaped and aligned to the projector&#39;s spatial light modulator and optimized for optimal optical throughput and homogeneous projection by first characterizing the beam profile, and, second, correcting it mechanically and numerically. A high-performance infrared (IR) camera is set up according to the tight geometrical situation (including corrections of the geometrical image distortions) and the requirement to detect weak temperature oscillations at the sample surface. Data acquisition can be performed once a synchronization between the individual thermal wave field sources, the scanning stage, and the IR camera is established by using a dedicated experimental setup which needs to be tuned to the specific material being investigated. During data post-processing, the relevant information on the presence of a defect below the surface of the sample is extracted. It is retrieved from the oscillating part of the acquired thermal radiation coming from the so-called depletion line of the sample surface. The exact location of the defect is deduced from the analysis of the spatial-temporal shape of these oscillations in a final step. The method is reference-free and very sensitive to changes within the thermal wave field. So far, the method has been tested with steel samples but is applicable to different materials as well, in particular to temperature sensitive materials.

This method aims at locating vertical subsurface defects. Here, we couple a laser with a spatial light modulator and trigger its video input to heat a sample surface deterministically with two anti-phased modulated lines while acquiring highly resolved thermal images. The defect position is retrieved from evaluating thermal wave interference minima.

The presented method is used to locate subsurface defects oriented perpendicularly to the surface. To achieve this, we create destructively interfering ...

Protocol for the Evaluation of MRI Artifacts Caused by Metal Implants to Assess the Suitability of Implants and the Vulnerability of Pulse Sequences

As the number of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanners and patients with medical implants is constantly growing, radiologists increasingly encounter metallic implant-related artifacts in MRI, resulting in reduced image quality. Therefore, the MRI suitability of implants in terms of artifact volume, as well as the development of pulse sequences to reduce image artifacts, are becoming more and more important. Here, we present a comprehensive protocol which allows for a standardized evaluation of the artifact volume of implants on MRI. Furthermore, this protocol can be used to analyze the vulnerability of different pulse sequences to artifacts. The proposed protocol can be applied to T1- and T2-weighted images with or without fat-suppression and all passive implants. Furthermore, the procedure enables the separate and three-dimensional identification of signal loss and pile-up artifacts. As previous investigations differed greatly in evaluation methods, the comparability of their results was limited. Thus, standardized measurements of MRI artifact volumes are necessary to provide better comparability. This may improve the development of the MRI suitability of implants and better pulse sequences to finally improve patient care.

We describe a standardized method to evaluate magnetic resonance imaging artifacts caused by implants to estimate the suitability of the implants for magnetic resonance imaging and/or the vulnerability of different pulse sequences to metallic artifacts simultaneously.

As the number of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanners and patients with medical implants is constantly growing, radiologists increasingly encounter ...

Combining Microfluidics and Microrheology to Determine Rheological Properties of Soft Matter during Repeated Phase Transitions

The microstructure of soft matter directly impacts macroscopic rheological properties and can be changed by factors including colloidal rearrangement during previous phase changes and applied shear. To determine the extent of these changes, we have developed a microfluidic device that enables repeated phase transitions induced by exchange of the surrounding fluid and microrheological characterization while limiting shear on the sample. This technique is &#181;2rheology, the combination of microfluidics and microrheology. The microfluidic device is a two-layer design with symmetric inlet streams entering a sample chamber that traps the gel sample in place during fluid exchange. Suction can be applied far away from the sample chamber to pull fluids into the sample chamber. Material rheological properties are characterized using multiple particle tracking microrheology (MPT). In MPT, fluorescent probe particles are embedded into the material and the Brownian motion of the probes is recorded using video microscopy. The movement of the particles is tracked and the mean-squared displacement (MSD) is calculated. The MSD is related to macroscopic rheological properties, using the Generalized Stokes-Einstein Relation. The phase of the material is identified by comparison to the critical relaxation exponent, determined using time-cure superposition. Measurements of a fibrous colloidal gel illustrate the utility of the technique. This gel has a delicate structure that can be irreversibly changed when shear is applied. &#181;2rheology data shows that the material repeatedly equilibrates to the same rheological properties after each phase transition, indicating that phase transitions do not play a role in microstructural changes. To determine the role of shear, samples can be sheared prior to injection into our microfluidic device. &#181;2rheology is a widely applicable technique for the characterization of soft matter enabling the determination of rheological properties of delicate microstructures in a single sample during phase transitions in response to repeated changes in the surrounding environmental conditions.

We demonstrate the fabrication and use of a microfluidic device that enables multiple particle tracking microrheology measurements to study the rheological effects of repeated phase transitions on soft matter.

The microstructure of soft matter directly impacts macroscopic rheological properties and can be changed by factors including colloidal rearrangement ...

Multi-material Ceramic-Based Components &#8211; Additive Manufacturing of Black-and-white Zirconia Components by Thermoplastic 3D-Printing (CerAM - T3DP)

To combine the benefits of Additive Manufacturing (AM) with the benefits of Functionally Graded Materials (FGM) to ceramic-based 4D components (three dimensions for the geometry and one degree of freedom concerning the material properties at each position) the Thermoplastic 3D-Printing (CerAM -&#160;T3DP) was developed. It is a direct AM technology which allows the AM of multi-material components. To demonstrate the advantages of this technology black-and-white zirconia components were additively manufactured and co-sintered defect-free.
Two different pairs of black and white zirconia powders were used to prepare different thermoplastic suspensions. Appropriate dispensing parameters were investigated to manufacture single-material test components and adjusted for the additive manufacturing of multi-color zirconia components.

Multi-material Ceramic-Based Components &amp;#8211; Additive Manufacturing of Black-and-white Zirconia Components by Thermoplastic 3D-Printing (CerAM - T3DP)

Here we describe a protocol for additively manufacturing black-and-white zirconia components by Thermoplastic 3D-Printing (CerAM -&#160;T3DP) and co-sintering defect-free.

To combine the benefits of Additive Manufacturing (AM) with the benefits of Functionally Graded Materials (FGM) to ceramic-based 4D components (three ...