The work has been developed within the Project &#34;Self-Regulated Learning in SmartArt Erasmus+ Adult Education&#34; 2019-1-ES01-KA204-095615-Coordinator 6, funded by the European Commission. The video of the task completion phase had the prior informed consent of Rut Velasco S&#225;iz. We appreciate the participation of teachers and students in the task implementation phase.

This protocol was performed in compliance with the procedural regulations of the Bioethical Committee of the University of Burgos (Spain) n&#186; N&#186; IR27/2019. Prior to their participation, the participants had been made fully aware of the research objectives and had all provided their informed consent. They received no financial compensation for their participation.
1. Participant recruitment
<ol>
	<li>Recruit participants from among a group of adults within two environments (students and teachers), with an age rank of 18 to 69 year-old in the environment of Higher Education (formal and non-formal education).</li>
	<li>Include participants with normal or corrected-to-normal vision and hearing.</li>
	<li>Exclude participants with neurological, psychiatric, and sleep disorders, disabilities related to educational special needs, perceptual difficulties (impaired sight and hearing), and cognitive disabilities. 
	&#8203;NOTE: In this study we worked with a sample of 40 participants, 6 students from the University of Experience (one participant was excluded in the category of students from the university of experience because of visual difficulties), 25 university professors in the disciplines of health sciences, engineering, and history and heritage, and 9 undergraduate and master&#39;s students following courses in health sciences, engineering, and history and heritage. The participants had no cognitive, hearing, nor visual problems, and they all had normal or corrected-to-normal vision (Table 2). That is why, one of the participants was eliminated before starting the experiment because nystagmus had been detected on him and therefore the task was applied to a sample of 39 participants. The participants received no financial nor professional compensation; that is why participants&#39; motivation was high as it was only based on their interest to know how this eye-tracking method works during a learning process related with cultural heritage, specifically the origin of European monasteries.</li>
</ol>
Table 2. Characteristics of the sample.&#160;<a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/62103/Copia de JoVE_Table_2.xls" target="_blank">Please click here to download this Table.</a>
2. Experimental Procedure
<ol>
	<li>Session 1: Collection of informed consent, personal data, and background knowledge
	<ol>
		<li>Obtain informed consent. Before the test, inform each participant of the aims of the study and the collection, treatment, and storage of their data. The agreement of each participant is given by signing the informed consent form. 
		NOTE: Participation in this study was voluntary and there was no financial reward. This aspect ensured that the completion of the tasks had no economic motivation. Before starting the task, the interviewer, an expert in the field, fills up a questionnaire with questions on age, gender, occupation, and prior knowledge of the subject matter, in this case, the origin and historical development of monasteries in Europe (see Table 3). This study is part of a European Project (2019-1-ES01-KA204-095615-Coordinator 6) on adult learning about the Cultural Heritage of Humanity throughout life; that is why this type of task was chosen. Each investigator will choose the topic depending on his or her work field.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
Table 3. Interview questionnaire.&#160;<a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/62103/Copia de JoVE_Table_3.xls" target="_blank">Please click here to download this Table.</a>
<ol start="2">
	<li>Session 2: Calibration
	<ol>
		<li>Inform the participant about how eye-tracking technology works and how the information will be collected and recorded and calibrate: &#34;We will use eye-tracking technology to observe the completion of the learning task on the origin and the development of European monasteries. Eye tracking is a technology that allows you to follow your gaze while you perform the activity and it has no side effects, nor it is invasive, since in this study only eye tracking is recorded&#34;.</li>
		<li>Explain to the participant that a valid test requires proper positioning. Have the participant must sit at a certain distance [45 to 60 cm] from the monitor. The distance will depend on the height of the participant, the lower the height, the shorter the distance.</li>
		<li>Inform the participant that a series of points will appear on the cardinal points of the screen and that as each point appears the participant must observe it with the eyes. The participant can move from one point to another by using the &#34;enter&#34; cursor. The calibration phase has a duration of 10-15 minutes. 
		NOTE: An Eye-tracking iViewer XTM, SMI Experimenter Center 3.0, and SMI Be Gaze and a monitor with a resolution of 1680&#215;1050 were used for the task-resolution exercise. This equipment registers ocular movements, their coordinates, and pupillary diameters of each eye. In this study, 60 Hz were applied, scan-path metrics and dynamic scan-path metrics were used, and AOI statistics were determined.</li>
		<li>Check the calibration setting. The professional supervising the test analyzes the calibration setting on the control screen.
		<ol>
			<li>Perform calibration through the calibrating system that is included in the Eye-tracking iViewer XTM. Before starting this task, each participant realizes a visual follow-up of four points on a screen to the four corners (up-right, up-left, down-right, down-left). Afterward, the software has an execution verification process of the right position of these stimuli and gives information on the parameter adjustment in degrees. If this adjustment is situated between 0.6&#186; &#177; 1 in the right and left eye, it is considered that the calibration is correct, and the task execution starts. An example of the process can be verified in Figure 1. 
			&#8203;NOTE: Correct task completion is considered when the degrees in the right and left eye are set at 0.6&#186; &#177; 1 standard deviation. In this study, two calibrations were detected among the group of university professors that exceeded the adjustment criterion of 0.6&#186; &#177; 1 and two participants were therefore removed. The 25 participants in the first sample were therefore reduced to 23 participants.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/62103/62103fig01.jpg" /> 
Figure 1. Process of eye-tracking calibration <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/62103/62103fig01large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<ol start="3">
	<li>Session 3: Performing the learning task
	<ol>
		<li>Explain the contents of the task to the participant. An expert in instructional psychology explains to the participant what the task will consist of and how to perform it: &#34;The video is 1:14 seconds long and consists of 5 voice-over images. At the end, the participant is invited to complete a small crossword puzzle to check that the information presented in the video has been understood&#34;.</li>
		<li>Watch the video clip. The video used in the task can be viewed at the following link:&#160;<a href="https://youtu.be/HlGGgrYDTFs" target="_blank">https://youtu.be/HlGGgrYDTFs.</a> 
		NOTE: The task consists in watching a video that offers information on the origins of European monasteries. The information has been elaborated by a specialist, an Art History teacher. The information is organized in two channels, one visual which includes images and written information presented as outlines and another audio one because a SRL specialist teacher is speaking throughout the video insisting on the most significant contents using verbal emphasis.</li>
		<li>Performing the crossword puzzle on a Moodle-based virtual platform. Clicking on the crossword icon takes the participant to a virtual platform where the crossword may be completed, to check whether the knowledge has been acquired. The crossword puzzle is presented in Figure 2.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/62103/62103fig02.jpg" /> 
Figure 2. Crossword puzzle to check the acquired knowledge. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/62103/62103fig02large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<ol start="4">
	<li>Session 4: Data analysis
	<ol>
		<li>Choose the Areas Of Interest (AOI). AOIs are defined in the video and are divided into AOIs that contain relevant information versus AOIs that include non-relevant information. 
		NOTE: The AOI assignation is realized by the experimenter who decides which are the relevant or irrelevant AOIs in relation to the presented information.</li>
		<li>Extract the database relating to the parameters for AOI Fixations (&#34;Event Start Trial Time&#34;, &#34;Event End Trial Time&#34; and &#34;Event Duration&#34;; &#34;Fixation Position X&#34;, &#34;Fixation Position Y&#34;, &#34;Fixation Average Pupil Size&#34;, &#34;Fixation Average Pupil Size Y px&#34;, &#34;Fixation Average Pupil Diameter&#34;, &#34;Fixation Dispersion X&#34; and &#34;Fixation Dispersion Y&#34;).</li>
		<li>Import the database into a statistical processing software package and select the option analyze and then classify, followed by the option k-means cluster. Then select cross-table in the statistical software package, for example SPSS, followed by the &#39;ANOVA&#39; option, to analyze the differences between the participants (type of adult groups and degree of prior knowledge) with regard to their AOI Fixation parameters31. 
		NOTE: Clustering or cluster analysis is an &#39;unsupervised&#39; machine-learning technique, and, within k-means, it is a grouping method, the aim of which is to partition a set of n observations into k groups, in which each observation belongs to the group with the closest mean value. In this experiment, k-means clustering was used to check the clusters of participants in the learning task. This correspondence is important, because it offers the teacher or therapist information on the homogeneous functional development of users that goes beyond the diagnosis, providing information to propose similar intervention programs in some areas of functional development. This option is expected to facilitate full use of the educational or therapeutic service and its personal and material resources.</li>
		<li>Perform a visualization analysis of the data (descriptive and cluster analysis) that are processed, using a visualization software such as Orange32.</li>
		<li>Extract the data on the parameters of Detailed Statistics: Dwell Time, Glance Duration, Diversion Duration, Glance Count, Fixation Count, Average Fixation, and Duration then import that database into a statistical software package. Select the option &#39;ANOVA&#39; in the statistical package and then conduct a visualization analysis of the data that were processed (means). Use the spreadsheet to generate a spider chart and specific bar graphs for the groups of participants.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Session 5: Personalized learning proposals
	<ol>
		<li>Perform an intervention program to improve learning outcomes among the participants detected in the cluster analysis, due to their lower scores. 
		NOTE: A summary of the phases followed in the experimental Procedure is shown in Figure 3.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/62103/62103fig03.jpg" /> 
Figure 3. Phases of the experimental procedure. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/62103/62103fig03large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

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The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

The research results indicated that the average fixation duration on the relevant stimuli was longer among participants with previous knowledge. Likewise, the focus of attention on this group is on the middle points of information (proximal and distal)7. The results of this study have revealed differences in the way participants processed the information. Furthermore, their processing was not always linked to the initial grouping (University of Experience Students, University Teachers and Graduate...

Eye-tracking methodology applied to behavioral analysis in learning 
Eye-tracking methodology, among other functional uses, is applied to the study of human behavior, specifically during task resolution. This technique facilitates monitoring and analysis during the completion of learning tasks1. Specifically, the attention levels of students at different points of the learning process (start, development, and end) in different subjects (History, Mathematics, Science, etc.) can be studied with the use of eye-tracking technology. In addition, if the task includes the use of videos with a voice that guides the learning process, Self-Regulated Learning (SRL) is facilitated. Therefore, the implementation of eye-tracking technology in the analysis of tasks to which SRL (that include the use of videos) is proposed as a significant resource to understand how learning is developed2,3,4. This combination will also mean that the differences between instructional methods (with or without SRL, etc.) may be checked with different types of students (with or without prior knowledge, etc.)5. In contrast, the presentation of multi-channel information (simultaneous presentation of both auditory and visual information, whether verbal, written, or pictorial) can facilitate both the recording and the analysis of relevant versus non-relevant information from the above-mentioned variables6. Students with prior knowledge exposed to multimedia learning channels appear to learn more effectively than those with little or no prior knowledge. Students with high levels of prior knowledge of the subject matter will integrate textual and graphical information more effectively7. This functionality has been observed in the learning of texts8 that include images9. Eye-tracking technology offers information on where attention is focused and for how long. These data give insight into the development of a learning process in a more precise way than through the simple observation of the resolution process during the completion of a task. Also, the analysis of these indicators facilitates the study of whether the student develops deep or superficial learning. Furthermore, the relationship between these data and the learning results facilitates the validation of the information obtained with eye-tracking technology4,10. In fact, this technique together with SRL are increasingly used in Higher Education and in Adult Education11 learning environments, both on regulated and on non-regulated courses12.
Eye-tracking technology offers different metrics: distance, speed, acceleration, density, dispersion, angular velocity, transitions between Areas of Interest (AOI), sequential order of AOI, visits in the fixations, saccades, scan path and heat map parameters. However, the interpretation of these data is complex and requires the use of supervised (regression, decision trees, etc.) and unsupervised (k-means cluster techniques, etc.)13,14 data-mining techniques. These metrics can be applied for monitoring the behavior of the same subject over time or for a comparison between several subjects and their performance with the same task15, by analyzing the difference between participants with previous knowledge versus no previous knowledge16. Recent research11,17 has revealed that novice apprentices fixate longer on the stimuli (i.e., there is a greater fixation frequency while similar scan-path patterns are recorded). The average duration of fixation was longer for experts than for novices. The experts presented their focus of attention on the middle points of the information (proximal and central), differences that may also be seen in the visualization points within the AOI on the heat maps.
Interpretation of metrics in eye tracking 
Recent studies18 have indicated that information acquisition is related to the number of ocular fixations on the stimuli. Another important metric is the saccade, which is defined as the rapid and sudden movement of a fixation with an interval of [10 ms, 100 ms]. Sharafi et al. (2015)18 found differences in the number of saccades, depending on the information coding phase of the student. Another relevant parameter is the scan-path, a metric that captures the chronological order of the steps that the participant performs for the resolution of the learning task within the AOI defined by the researcher18. Similarly, eye-tracking technology can be used to predict the participant&#39;s level of understanding, which appears to be related to the number of fixations. Recent studies have indicated that variability in gaze behavior is determined by the properties of the image (position, intensity, color, and orientation), the instructions for performing the task, and the type of information processing (learning style) of the participant. These differences are detected by analyzing the student&#39;s interaction with the different AOI19. Quantitative20 (frequency analysis) and/or qualitative or dynamic21 (scan path) techniques can be used to analyze the data collected from the different metrics. The former techniques are analyzed with traditional statistical techniques (frequency analysis, mean difference, variance difference, etc.) and the latter are analyzed with Machine Learning techniques (Euclidean distances with string-edit methods21,22, and clustering17). The application of these techniques facilitates clustering, by considering different characteristics of the subjects. One study17 found that the more expert the student, the more effective the spatial and temporal information processing strategy that is implemented. A descriptive table of the measurement parameters that were used in this study can be consulted below in Table 1.
Table 1: Most representative parameters that can be obtained with the eye-tracking technique, adapted from S&#225;iz, Zapara&#237;n, Marticorena, and Velasco (2019).20&#160;<a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/62103/Copia de JoVE_Table_1.xls" target="_blank">Please click here to download this Table.</a>
Application of the eye-tracking methodology to the study of the learning process 
The use of the technological advances and the data-analysis techniques described above5 will add greater precision to behavioral analysis of learners during problem solving in the different phases of information processing (task initiation, information processing, and task resolution). It will all facilitate individual behavioral analysis, which will in turn permit the grouping of students with similar characteristics24. Likewise, predictive techniques (decision trees, regression techniques, etc.)25 can be applied to learning, related both to the number of fixations and to the task-resolution results of each student. This functionality is a very important advance in the knowledge of how each student learns and for the proposal of personalized learning programs within different groups (people with or without learning difficulties26). Therefore, the use of this technique will contribute towards the achievement of personalization and optimization of learning27. Life-long learning must be understood as a cycle of continuous improvement since the knowledge of society is constantly advancing and progressing. Evolutionary psychology indicates that resolution skills and effectiveness in information processing decrease with age. Specifically, saccade frequency, amplitude, and speed of eye movements among adults have been found to decrease with age. In addition, at older ages, attention is focused on the lower areas of visual scenes, which is related to deficits in working memory14. Nevertheless, activation increases in the frontal and prefrontal areas at an older age, which appears to compensate for these deficits in task resolution. This aspect includes the level of previous knowledge and the cognitive compensation strategies that the subject can apply. Experienced participants learn more efficiently, since they manage attention more effectively, due to the application of automated supervision processes28. In addition, if the information to be learned is imparted through SRL techniques, the aforementioned deficiencies are mitigated17. The use of such techniques means that visual tracking patterns are very similar, both in subjects without prior knowledge and in subjects with prior knowledge7.
In summary, the analysis of multimodal-multichannel data on SRL obtained with the use of advanced learning (eye-tracking) technologies is key to understanding the interaction between cognitive, metacognitive, and motivational processes, and their impact on learning29. The results and the study of differences in learning have implications for the design of learning materials and intelligent tutoring systems, both of which will enable personalized learning that is likely to be more effective and satisfactory for the student30.
In this research, there were two investigation questions asked: (1) Will there be significant differences in the learning results and in the ocular fixation parameters between students and expert versus non-expert teachers in Art History differentiating students with official degrees versus students with non-official degrees (University of Experience - Adult education)? and (2) Will clusters of each participant with learning results and ocular fixation parameters coincide with the type of participants (students with official degrees, students with non-official degrees (University of Experience - Adult education) and teachers)?

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eye-tracking technology and data-mining techniques used for a behavioral analysis of adults engaged in learning processes

Behavioral analysis of adults engaged in learning tasks is a major challenge in the field of adult education. Nowadays, in a world of continuous technological changes and scientific advances, there is a need for life-long learning and education within both formal and non-formal educational environments. In response to this challenge, the use of eye-tracking technology and data-mining techniques, respectively, for supervised (mainly prediction) and unsupervised (specifically cluster analysis) learning, provide methods for the detection of forms of learning among users and/or the classification of their learning styles. In this study, a protocol is proposed for the study of learning styles among adults with and without previous knowledge at different ages (18 to 69-year-old) and at different points throughout the learning process (start and end). Statistical analysis-of-variance techniques mean that differences may be detected between the participants by type of learner and previous knowledge of the task. Likewise, the use of&#160;unsupervised learning clustering techniques throws light on similar forms of learning among the participants across different groups. All these data will facilitate personalized proposals from the teacher for the presentation of each task at different points in the chain of information processing. It will likewise be easier for the teacher to adapt teaching materials to the learning needs of each student or group of students with similar characteristics.

The 36 participants recruited for the present study were from three groups of adults (students from the university of experience, university professors, and undergraduate and master&#39;s degree students) with ages ranging between [18&#160;and 69] years (Table 2). The protocol was tested over 20 months at the University of Burgos. An outline of the development can be seen in Table 4.
Tab...

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Eye-tracking Technology and Data-mining Techniques used for a Behavioral Analysis of Adults engaged in Learning Processes

We present a protocol for a behavioral analysis of adults (ages 18 to 70-year-old) engaged in learning processes, undertaking tasks designed for Self-Regulated Learning (SRL). The participants, university teachers and students, and adults from the University of Experience, were monitored with eye-tracking devices and the data were analyzed with data-mining techniques.

Behavioral analysis of adults engaged in learning tasks is a major challenge in the field of adult education. Nowadays, in a world of continuous ...

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Research

JoVE Journal

Behavior

5.2K Views.  University of Burgos. We present a protocol for a behavioral analysis of adults (ages 18 to 70-year-old) engaged in learning processes, undertaking tasks designed for Self-Regulated Learning (SRL). The participants, university teachers and students, and adults from the University of Experience, were monitored with eye-tracking devices and the data were analyzed with data-mining techniques.

Video: Eye-tracking Technology and Data-mining Techniques used for a Behavioral Analysis of Adults engaged in Learning Processes

The Double-H Maze: A Robust Behavioral Test for Learning and Memory in Rodents

Spatial cognition research in rodents typically employs the use of maze tasks, whose attributes vary from one maze to the next. These tasks vary by their behavioral flexibility and required memory duration, the number of goals and pathways, and also the overall task complexity. A confounding feature in many of these tasks is the lack of control over the strategy employed by the rodents to reach the goal, e.g., allocentric (declarative-like) or egocentric (procedural) based strategies. The double-H maze is a novel water-escape memory task that addresses this issue, by allowing the experimenter to direct the type of strategy learned during the training period. The double-H maze is a transparent device, which consists of a central alleyway with three arms protruding on both sides, along with an escape platform submerged at the extremity of one of these arms.
Rats can be trained using an allocentric strategy by alternating the start position in the maze in an unpredictable manner (see protocol 1; &#167;4.7), thus requiring them to learn the location of the platform based on the available allothetic cues. Alternatively, an egocentric learning strategy (protocol 2; &#167;4.8) can be employed by releasing the rats from the same position during each trial, until they learn the procedural pattern required to reach the goal. This task has been proven to allow for the formation of stable memory traces.
Memory can be probed following the training period in a misleading probe trial, in which the starting position for the rats alternates. Following an egocentric learning paradigm, rats typically resort to an allocentric-based strategy, but only when their initial view on the extra-maze cues differs markedly from their original position. This task is ideally suited to explore the effects of drugs/perturbations on allocentric/egocentric memory performance, as well as the interactions between these two memory systems.

The goal of this protocol is to investigate spatial cognition in rodents. The double-H water maze is a novel test, which is particularly useful to elucidate the different components of learning, consolidation and memory, as well as the interplay of memory systems.

Spatial cognition research in rodents typically employs the use of maze tasks, whose attributes vary from one maze to the next. These tasks vary by their ...

Combined Shuttle-Box Training with Electrophysiological Cortex Recording and Stimulation as a Tool to Study Perception and Learning

Shuttle-box avoidance learning is a well-established method in behavioral neuroscience and experimental setups were traditionally custom-made; the necessary equipment is now available by several commercial companies. This protocol provides a detailed description of a two-way shuttle-box avoidance learning paradigm in rodents (here Mongolian gerbils; Meriones unguiculatus) in combination with site-specific electrical intracortical microstimulation (ICMS) and simultaneous chronical electrophysiological in vivo recordings. The detailed protocol is applicable to study multiple aspects of learning behavior and perception in different rodent species.
Site-specific ICMS of auditory cortical circuits as conditioned stimuli here is used as a tool to test the perceptual relevance of specific afferent, efferent and intracortical connections. Distinct activation patterns can be evoked by using different stimulation electrode arrays for local, layer-dependent ICMS or distant ICMS sites. Utilizing behavioral signal detection analysis it can be determined which stimulation strategy is most effective for eliciting a behaviorally detectable and salient signal. Further, parallel multichannel-recordings using different electrode designs (surface electrodes, depth electrodes, etc.) allow for investigating neuronal observables over the time course of such learning processes. It will be discussed how changes of the behavioral design can increase the cognitive complexity (e.g. detection, discrimination, reversal learning).

Shuttle-box avoidance learning is well-established in behavioral neuroscience. This protocol describes how shuttle-box learning in rodents can be combined with site-specific electrical intracortical microstimulation (ICMS) and simultaneous chronical in vivo recordings as a tool to study multiple aspects of learning and perception.

Shuttle-box avoidance learning is a well-established method in behavioral neuroscience and experimental setups were traditionally custom-made; the ...

Vagus Nerve Stimulation as a Tool to Induce Plasticity in Pathways Relevant for Extinction Learning

Extinction describes the process of attenuating behavioral responses to neutral stimuli when they no longer provide the reinforcement that has been maintaining the behavior. There is close correspondence between fear and human anxiety, and therefore studies of extinction learning might provide insight into the biological nature of anxiety-related disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder, and they might help to develop strategies to treat them. Preclinical research aims to aid extinction learning and to induce targeted plasticity in extinction circuits to consolidate the newly formed memory. Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) is a powerful approach that provides tight temporal and circuit-specific release of neurotransmitters, resulting in modulation of neuronal networks engaged in an ongoing task. VNS enhances memory consolidation in both rats and humans, and pairing VNS with exposure to conditioned cues enhances the consolidation of extinction learning in rats. Here, we provide a detailed protocol for the preparation of custom-made parts and the surgical procedures required for VNS in rats. Using this protocol we show how VNS can facilitate the extinction of conditioned fear responses in an auditory fear conditioning task. In addition, we provide evidence that VNS modulates synaptic plasticity in the pathway between the infralimbic (IL) medial prefrontal cortex and the basolateral complex of the amygdala (BLA), which is involved in the expression and modulation of extinction memory.

Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) has emerged as a tool to induce targeted synaptic plasticity in the forebrain to modify a range of behaviors. This protocol describes how to implement VNS to facilitate the consolidation of fear extinction memory.

Extinction describes the process of attenuating behavioral responses to neutral stimuli when they no longer provide the reinforcement that has been ...

Eye-Tracking Control to Assess Cognitive Functions in Patients with Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a neurodegenerative disorder with pathological involvement of upper and lower motoneurons, subsequently leading to progressive loss of motor and speech abilities. In addition, cognitive functions are impaired in a subset of patients. To evaluate these potential deficits in severely physically impaired ALS patients, eye-tracking is a promising means to conduct cognitive tests. The present article focuses on how eye movements, an indirect means of communication for physically disabled patients, can be utilized to allow for detailed neuropsychological assessment. The requirements, in terms of oculomotor parameters that have to be met for sufficient eye-tracking in ALS patients are presented. The properties of stimuli, including type of neuropsychological tests and style of presentation, best suited to successfully assess cognitive functioning, are also described. Furthermore, recommendations regarding procedural requirements are provided. Overall, this methodology provides a reliable, easy to administer and fast approach for assessing cognitive deficits in patients who are unable to speak or write such as patients with severe ALS. The only confounding factor might be deficits in voluntary eye movement control in a subset of ALS patients.

Cognitive deficits are common in about one third of patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, a neurological condition leading to progressive impairments in speech and movement abilities. To conduct cognitive tests in patients unable to speak or write a reliable and easy to administer eye-tracking paradigm was developed.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a neurodegenerative disorder with pathological involvement of upper and lower motoneurons, subsequently leading to ...

Investigating Motor Skill Learning Processes with a Robotic Manipulandum

Skilled reaching tasks are commonly used in studies of motor skill learning and motor function under healthy and pathological conditions, but can be time-intensive and ambiguous to quantify beyond simple success rates. Here, we describe the training procedure for reach-and-pull tasks with ETH Pattus, a robotic platform for automated forelimb reaching training that records pulling and hand rotation movements in rats. Kinematic quantification of the performed pulling attempts reveals the presence of distinct temporal profiles of movement parameters such as pulling velocity, spatial variability of the pulling trajectory, deviation from midline, as well as pulling success. We show how minor adjustments in the training paradigm result in alterations in these parameters, revealing their relation to task difficulty, general motor function or skilled task execution. Combined with electrophysiological, pharmacological and optogenetic techniques, this paradigm can be used to explore the mechanisms underlying motor learning and memory formation, as well as loss and recovery of function (e.g. after stroke).

A paradigm is presented for training and analysis of an automated skilled reaching task in rats. Analysis of pulling attempts reveals distinct subprocesses of motor learning.

Skilled reaching tasks are commonly used in studies of motor skill learning and motor function under healthy and pathological conditions, but can be ...

Eye Tracking During Visually Situated Language Comprehension: Flexibility and Limitations in Uncovering Visual Context Effects

The present work is a description and an assessment of a methodology designed to quantify different aspects of the interaction between language processing and the perception of the visual world. The recording of eye-gaze patterns has provided good evidence for the contribution of both the visual context and linguistic/world knowledge to language comprehension. Initial research assessed object-context effects to test&#160;theories of modularity in language processing. In the introduction, we describe how subsequent investigations have taken the role of the wider visual context in language processing as a research topic in its own right, asking questions such as how our visual perception of events and of speakers contributes to&#160;comprehension informed by&#160;comprehenders&#39; experience. Among the examined aspects of the visual context are actions, events, a speaker&#39;s gaze, and emotional facial expressions, as well as spatial object configurations. Following an overview of the eye-tracking method and its different applications, we list the key steps of the methodology in the protocol, illustrating how to successfully use it to study visually-situated language comprehension. A final section presents three sets of representative results and illustrates the benefits and limitations of eye tracking for investigating the interplay between the perception of the visual world and language comprehension.

The present article reviews an eye-tracking methodology for studies on language comprehension. To obtain reliable data, key steps of the protocol must be followed. Among these are the correct set-up of the eye tracker (e.g., ensuring good quality of the eye and head images) and accurate calibration.

The present work is a description and an assessment of a methodology designed to quantify different aspects of the interaction between language processing ...

Stress-Enhanced Fear Learning, a Robust Rodent Model of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

Fear behaviors are important for survival, but disproportionately high levels of fear can increase the vulnerability for developing psychiatric disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). To understand the biological mechanisms of fear dysregulation in PTSD, it is important to start with a valid animal model of the disorder. This protocol describes the methodology required to conduct stress-enhanced fear learning (SEFL) experiments, a preclinical model of PTSD, in both rats and mice. SEFL was developed to recapitulate critical aspects of PTSD, including long-term sensitization of fear learning caused by an acute stressor. SEFL uses aspects of Pavlovian fear conditioning but produces a distinct and robust sensitized fear response far greater than normal conditional fear responses. The trauma procedure involves placing a rodent in a conditioning chamber and administering 15 unsignaled shocks randomly distributed over 90 minutes (for rat experiments; for mouse experiments, 10 unsignaled shocks randomly distributed over 60 minutes are used). On day 2, rodents are placed in a novel conditioning context where they receive a single shock; then, on day 3 they are placed back in the same context as on day 2 and tested for changes in freezing levels. Rodents that previously received the trauma display enhanced levels of freezing on the test day compared to those that received no shocks on the first day. Thus, with this model, a single highly stressful experience (the trauma) produces extreme fear of the stimuli associated with the traumatic event.

Here we describe the detailed methodology required to conduct stress-enhanced fear learning (SEFL) experiments, a preclinical model of post-traumatic stress disorder, in both rats and mice. The model utilizes aspects of Pavlovian fear conditioning and freezing as an index of enhanced fear in rodents.

Fear behaviors are important for survival, but disproportionately high levels of fear can increase the vulnerability for developing psychiatric disorders ...

Simultaneous Eye Tracking and Single-Neuron Recordings in Human Epilepsy Patients

Intracranial recordings from patients with intractable epilepsy provide a unique opportunity to study the activity of individual human neurons during active behavior. An important tool for quantifying behavior is eye tracking, which is an indispensable tool for studying visual attention. However, eye tracking is challenging to use concurrently with invasive electrophysiology and this approach has consequently been little used. Here, we present a proven experimental protocol to conduct single-neuron recordings with simultaneous eye tracking in humans. We describe how the systems are connected and the optimal settings to record neurons and eye movements. To illustrate the utility of this method, we summarize results that were made possible by this setup. This data shows how using eye tracking in a memory-guided visual search task allowed us to describe a new class of neurons called target neurons, whose response was reflective of top-down attention to the current search target. Lastly, we discuss the significance and solutions to potential problems of this setup. Together, our protocol and results suggest that single-neuron recordings with simultaneous eye tracking in humans are an effective method to study human brain function. It provides a key missing link between animal neurophysiology and human cognitive neuroscience.

We describe a method to conduct single-neuron recordings with simultaneous eye tracking in humans. We demonstrate the utility of this method and illustrate how we used this approach to obtain neurons in the human medial temporal lobe that encode targets of a visual search.

Intracranial recordings from patients with intractable epilepsy provide a unique opportunity to study the activity of individual human neurons during ...

Exploring Infant Sensitivity to Visual Language using Eye Tracking and the Preferential Looking Paradigm

We discuss the use of the preferential looking paradigm in eye tracking studies in order to study how infants develop, understand, and attend to the world around them. Eye tracking is a safe and non-invasive way to collect gaze data from infants, and the preferential looking paradigm is simple to design and only requires the infant to be attending to the screen. By simultaneously showing two visual stimuli that differ in one dimension, we can assess whether infants show different looking behavior for either stimulus, thus demonstrating sensitivity to that difference. The challenges in such experimental approaches are that experiments must be kept brief (no more than 10 min) and be carefully controlled such that the two stimuli differ in only one way. The interpretation of null results must also be carefully considered. In this paper, we illustrate a successful example of an infant eye tracking study with a preferential looking paradigm to discover that 6-month-olds are sensitive to linguistic cues in a signed language despite having no prior exposure to signed language, suggesting that infants possess intrinsic or innate sensitivities to these cues.

Eye tracking studies using a preferential looking paradigm can be used to study infants&#39;&#160;emerging understanding of, and attention to, their external visual world.

We discuss the use of the preferential looking paradigm in eye tracking studies in order to study how infants develop, understand, and attend to the world ...

Multimodal Protocol for Assessing Metacognition and Self-Regulation in Adults with Learning Difficulties

Learning disabilities (LDs) encompass disorders of those who have difficulty learning and using academic skills, exhibiting performance below expectations for their chronological age in the areas of reading, writing, and/or mathematics. Each of the disorders making up the LDs involve different deficits; however, some commonalities can be found within that heterogeneity, such in terms of learning self-regulation and metacognition. Unlike in early ages and later educational levels, there are hardly any evidence-based evaluation protocols for adults with LDs. LDs influence academic performance but also have serious consequences in professional, social, and family contexts. In response to this, the current work proposes a multimodal evaluation protocol focused on metacognitive, self-regulation of learning, and emotional processes, which make up the basis of the difficulties in adults with LDs. The assessment is carried out through analysis of the on-line learning process using a variety methods, techniques, and sensors (e.g., eye tracking, facial expressions of emotion, physiological responses, concurrent verbalizations, log files, screen recordings of human-machine interactions) and off-line methods (e.g., questionnaires, interviews, and self-report measures). This theoretically-driven and empirically-based guideline aims to provide an accurate assessment of LDs in adulthood in order to design effective prevention and intervention proposals.

The current work proposes a multimodal evaluation protocol focused on metacognitive, self-regulation of learning, and emotional processes, which make up the basis of the difficulties in adults with LDs.

Learning disabilities (LDs) encompass disorders of those who have difficulty learning and using academic skills, exhibiting performance below expectations ...