Name: eye-tracking technology and data-mining techniques used for a behavioral analysis of adults engaged in learning processes
Uploaded: 2021-06-10T14:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Eye-tracking Technology and Data-mining Techniques used for a Behavioral Analysis of Adults engaged in Learning Processes at JoVE.com

The work has been developed within the Project &#34;Self-Regulated Learning in SmartArt Erasmus+ Adult Education&#34; 2019-1-ES01-KA204-095615-Coordinator 6, funded by the European Commission. The video of the task completion phase had the prior informed consent of Rut Velasco S&#225;iz. We appreciate the participation of teachers and students in the task implementation phase.

This protocol was performed in compliance with the procedural regulations of the Bioethical Committee of the University of Burgos (Spain) n&#186; N&#186; IR27/2019. Prior to their participation, the participants had been made fully aware of the research objectives and had all provided their informed consent. They received no financial compensation for their participation.
1. Participant recruitment
<ol>
	<li>Recruit participants from among a group of adults within two environments (students ...

<ol>
	<li>van Marlen, T., van Wermeskerken, M., Jarodzka, H., van Gog, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effectiveness+of+eye+movement+modeling+examples+in+problem+solving:+The+role+of+verbal+ambiguity+and+prior+knowledge.">Effectiveness of eye movement modeling examples in problem solving: The role of verbal ambiguity and prior knowledge.</a> Learning and Instruction. 58, 274-283 (2018).</li><li>Taub, M., Azevedo, R., Bradbury, A. E., Millar, G. 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E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Using+multimedia+for+e-learning.">Using multimedia for e-learning.</a> Journal of Computer Assisted Learning. 33 (5), 403-423 (2017).</li><li>Prokop, M., Pila&#345;, L., Tich&#225;, I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Impact+of+think-aloud+on+eye-tracking:+A+comparison+of+concurrent+and+retrospective+think-aloud+for+research+on+decision-making+in+the+game+environment.">Impact of think-aloud on eye-tracking: A comparison of concurrent and retrospective think-aloud for research on decision-making in the game environment.</a> Sensors. 20 (10), (2020).</li><li>DuMouchel, W., Abello, J., Pardalos, P. M., Resende, M. G. 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A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+nonparametric+method+for+detecting+fixations+and+saccades+using+cluster+analysis:+Removing+the+need+for+arbitrary+thresholds.">A nonparametric method for detecting fixations and saccades using cluster analysis: Removing the need for arbitrary thresholds.</a> Journal of Neuroscience Methods. 30 (227), 121-131 (2014).</li><li>Maltz, M., Shinar, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Eye+Movements+of+Younger+and+Older+Drivers.">Eye Movements of Younger and Older Drivers.</a> Human Factors. 41 (1), 15-25 (1999).</li><li>Burch, M., Kull, A., Weiskopf, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=AOI+rivers+for+visualizing+dynamic+eye+gaze+frequencies.">AOI rivers for visualizing dynamic eye gaze frequencies.</a> Computer Graphics Forum. 32 (3), 281-290 (2013).</li><li>Dzeng, R. -. J., Lin, C. -. T., Fang, Y. -. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Using+eye-tracker+to+compare+search+patterns+between+experienced+and+novice+workers+for+site+hazard+identification.">Using eye-tracker to compare search patterns between experienced and novice workers for site hazard identification.</a> Safety Science. 82, 56-67 (2016).</li><li>Kurzhals, K., Weiskopf, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Space-time+visual+analytics+of+eye-tracking+data+for+dynamic+stimuli.">Space-time visual analytics of eye-tracking data for dynamic stimuli.</a> IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics. 19 (12), 2129-2138 (2013).</li><li>Sharafi, Z., Soh, Z., Gu&#233;h&#233;neuc, Y. -. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+systematic+literature+review+on+the+usage+of+eye-tracking+in+software+engineering.">A systematic literature review on the usage of eye-tracking in software engineering.</a> Information and Software Technology. 67, 79-107 (2015).</li><li>Dalrymple, K. A., Jiang, M., Zhao, Q., Elison, J. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Machine+learning+accurately+classifies+age+of+toddlers+based+on+eye+tracking.">Machine learning accurately classifies age of toddlers based on eye tracking.</a> Scientific Reports. 9 (1), 6255 (2019).</li><li>Seifert, L., Cordier, R., Orth, D., Courtine, Y., Croft, J. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Role+of+route+previewing+strategies+on+climbing+fluency+and+exploratory+movements.">Role of route previewing strategies on climbing fluency and exploratory movements.</a> PLoS One. 12 (4), 1-22 (2017).</li><li>Takeuchi, H., Habuchi, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+quantitative+method+for+analyzing+scan+path+data+obtained+by+eye+tracker.">A quantitative method for analyzing scan path data obtained by eye tracker.</a> IEEE Symposium on Computational Intelligence and Data Mining, CIDM 2007. , 283-286 (2007).</li><li>Takeuchi, H., Matsuda, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Scan-path+analysis+by+the+string-edit+method+considering+fixation+duration.">Scan-path analysis by the string-edit method considering fixation duration.</a> 6th International Conference on Soft Computing and Intelligent Systems, and 13th International Symposium on Advanced Intelligence Systems, SCIS/ISIS 2012. , 1724-1728 (2012).</li><li>S&#225;iz, M. C., Marticorena, R., Anaiz, &. #. 1. 9. 3. ;., Zapara&#237;n, M. J., Peralbo, M., Risso, A., Barca, A., Duarte, B., Almeda, L., Brenlla, J. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Task+analysis+with+eye+tracking+technology.+srl+at+Smartart.">Task analysis with eye tracking technology. srl at Smartart.</a> II Congress of the International Scientific Association of Psychopedagogy Proceedings. , 4093-4104 (2019).</li><li>Khedher, A. B., Jraidi, I., Frasson, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tracking+Students'+Analytical+Reasoning+Using+Visual+Scan+Paths.">Tracking Students' Analytical Reasoning Using Visual Scan Paths.</a> IEEE 17th International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies (ICALT). , 53-54 (2017).</li><li>Xia, C., Han, J., Qi, F., Shi, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Predicting+Human+Saccadic+Scanpaths+Based+on+Iterative+Representation+Learning.">Predicting Human Saccadic Scanpaths Based on Iterative Representation Learning.</a> IEEE Trans Image Process. 8 (7), 3502-3515 (2019).</li><li>Cerezo, R., Fern&#225;ndez, E., G&#243;mez, C., S&#225;nchez-Santill&#225;n, M., Taub, M., Azevedo, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multimodal+Protocol+for+Assessing+Metacognition+and+Self-Regulation+in+Adults+with+Learning+Difficulties.">Multimodal Protocol for Assessing Metacognition and Self-Regulation in Adults with Learning Difficulties.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments. , e60331 (2020).</li><li>Scherer, R., Siddiq, F., Tondeur, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+technology+acceptance+model+(TAM):+A+meta-analytic+structural+equation+modeling+approach+to+explaining+teachers'+adoption+of+digital+technology+in+education.">The technology acceptance model (TAM): A meta-analytic structural equation modeling approach to explaining teachers' adoption of digital technology in education.</a> Computers &amp; Education. 128 (0317), 13-35 (2019).</li><li>Bruder, C., Ei&#223;feldt, H., Maschke, P., Hasse, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Differences+in+monitoring+between+experts+and+novices.">Differences in monitoring between experts and novices.</a> Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting. 57 (1), 295-298 (2013).</li><li>Azevedo, R., Ga&#353;evi&#263;, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Analyzing+Multimodal+Multichannel+Data+about+Self-Regulated+Learning+with+Advanced+Learning+Technologies:+Issues+and+Challenges.">Analyzing Multimodal Multichannel Data about Self-Regulated Learning with Advanced Learning Technologies: Issues and Challenges.</a> Computers in Human Behavior. 96, 207-210 (2019).</li><li>Taub, M., Azevedo, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=How+Does+Prior+Knowledge+Influence+Eye+Fixations+and+Sequences+of+Cognitive+and+Metacognitive+SRL+Processes+during+Learning+with+an+Intelligent+Tutoring+System.">How Does Prior Knowledge Influence Eye Fixations and Sequences of Cognitive and Metacognitive SRL Processes during Learning with an Intelligent Tutoring System.</a> International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education. 29 (1), 1-28 (2019).</li><li>IBM Corp. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> SPSS Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) (Version 24). , (2016).</li><li>. 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The research results indicated that the average fixation duration on the relevant stimuli was longer among participants with previous knowledge. Likewise, the focus of attention on this group is on the middle points of information (proximal and distal)7. The results of this study have revealed differences in the way participants processed the information. Furthermore, their processing was not always linked to the initial grouping (University of Experience Students, University Teachers and Graduate...

Eye-tracking methodology applied to behavioral analysis in learning 
Eye-tracking methodology, among other functional uses, is applied to the study of human behavior, specifically during task resolution. This technique facilitates monitoring and analysis during the completion of learning tasks1. Specifically, the attention levels of students at different points of the learning process (start, development, and end) in different subjects (History, Mathematics, Science, etc.) can be studied with the use of eye-tracking technology. In addition, if the task includes the use of videos with a voice that guides the learning process, Self-Regulated Learning (SRL) is facilitated. Therefore, the implementation of eye-tracking technology in the analysis of tasks to which SRL (that include the use of videos) is proposed as a significant resource to understand how learning is developed2,3,4. This combination will also mean that the differences between instructional methods (with or without SRL, etc.) may be checked with different types of students (with or without prior knowledge, etc.)5. In contrast, the presentation of multi-channel information (simultaneous presentation of both auditory and visual information, whether verbal, written, or pictorial) can facilitate both the recording and the analysis of relevant versus non-relevant information from the above-mentioned variables6. Students with prior knowledge exposed to multimedia learning channels appear to learn more effectively than those with little or no prior knowledge. Students with high levels of prior knowledge of the subject matter will integrate textual and graphical information more effectively7. This functionality has been observed in the learning of texts8 that include images9. Eye-tracking technology offers information on where attention is focused and for how long. These data give insight into the development of a learning process in a more precise way than through the simple observation of the resolution process during the completion of a task. Also, the analysis of these indicators facilitates the study of whether the student develops deep or superficial learning. Furthermore, the relationship between these data and the learning results facilitates the validation of the information obtained with eye-tracking technology4,10. In fact, this technique together with SRL are increasingly used in Higher Education and in Adult Education11 learning environments, both on regulated and on non-regulated courses12.
Eye-tracking technology offers different metrics: distance, speed, acceleration, density, dispersion, angular velocity, transitions between Areas of Interest (AOI), sequential order of AOI, visits in the fixations, saccades, scan path and heat map parameters. However, the interpretation of these data is complex and requires the use of supervised (regression, decision trees, etc.) and unsupervised (k-means cluster techniques, etc.)13,14 data-mining techniques. These metrics can be applied for monitoring the behavior of the same subject over time or for a comparison between several subjects and their performance with the same task15, by analyzing the difference between participants with previous knowledge versus no previous knowledge16. Recent research11,17 has revealed that novice apprentices fixate longer on the stimuli (i.e., there is a greater fixation frequency while similar scan-path patterns are recorded). The average duration of fixation was longer for experts than for novices. The experts presented their focus of attention on the middle points of the information (proximal and central), differences that may also be seen in the visualization points within the AOI on the heat maps.
Interpretation of metrics in eye tracking 
Recent studies18 have indicated that information acquisition is related to the number of ocular fixations on the stimuli. Another important metric is the saccade, which is defined as the rapid and sudden movement of a fixation with an interval of [10 ms, 100 ms]. Sharafi et al. (2015)18 found differences in the number of saccades, depending on the information coding phase of the student. Another relevant parameter is the scan-path, a metric that captures the chronological order of the steps that the participant performs for the resolution of the learning task within the AOI defined by the researcher18. Similarly, eye-tracking technology can be used to predict the participant&#39;s level of understanding, which appears to be related to the number of fixations. Recent studies have indicated that variability in gaze behavior is determined by the properties of the image (position, intensity, color, and orientation), the instructions for performing the task, and the type of information processing (learning style) of the participant. These differences are detected by analyzing the student&#39;s interaction with the different AOI19. Quantitative20 (frequency analysis) and/or qualitative or dynamic21 (scan path) techniques can be used to analyze the data collected from the different metrics. The former techniques are analyzed with traditional statistical techniques (frequency analysis, mean difference, variance difference, etc.) and the latter are analyzed with Machine Learning techniques (Euclidean distances with string-edit methods21,22, and clustering17). The application of these techniques facilitates clustering, by considering different characteristics of the subjects. One study17 found that the more expert the student, the more effective the spatial and temporal information processing strategy that is implemented. A descriptive table of the measurement parameters that were used in this study can be consulted below in Table 1.
Table 1: Most representative parameters that can be obtained with the eye-tracking technique, adapted from S&#225;iz, Zapara&#237;n, Marticorena, and Velasco (2019).20&#160;<a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/62103/Copia de JoVE_Table_1.xls" target="_blank">Please click here to download this Table.</a>
Application of the eye-tracking methodology to the study of the learning process 
The use of the technological advances and the data-analysis techniques described above5 will add greater precision to behavioral analysis of learners during problem solving in the different phases of information processing (task initiation, information processing, and task resolution). It will all facilitate individual behavioral analysis, which will in turn permit the grouping of students with similar characteristics24. Likewise, predictive techniques (decision trees, regression techniques, etc.)25 can be applied to learning, related both to the number of fixations and to the task-resolution results of each student. This functionality is a very important advance in the knowledge of how each student learns and for the proposal of personalized learning programs within different groups (people with or without learning difficulties26). Therefore, the use of this technique will contribute towards the achievement of personalization and optimization of learning27. Life-long learning must be understood as a cycle of continuous improvement since the knowledge of society is constantly advancing and progressing. Evolutionary psychology indicates that resolution skills and effectiveness in information processing decrease with age. Specifically, saccade frequency, amplitude, and speed of eye movements among adults have been found to decrease with age. In addition, at older ages, attention is focused on the lower areas of visual scenes, which is related to deficits in working memory14. Nevertheless, activation increases in the frontal and prefrontal areas at an older age, which appears to compensate for these deficits in task resolution. This aspect includes the level of previous knowledge and the cognitive compensation strategies that the subject can apply. Experienced participants learn more efficiently, since they manage attention more effectively, due to the application of automated supervision processes28. In addition, if the information to be learned is imparted through SRL techniques, the aforementioned deficiencies are mitigated17. The use of such techniques means that visual tracking patterns are very similar, both in subjects without prior knowledge and in subjects with prior knowledge7.
In summary, the analysis of multimodal-multichannel data on SRL obtained with the use of advanced learning (eye-tracking) technologies is key to understanding the interaction between cognitive, metacognitive, and motivational processes, and their impact on learning29. The results and the study of differences in learning have implications for the design of learning materials and intelligent tutoring systems, both of which will enable personalized learning that is likely to be more effective and satisfactory for the student30.
In this research, there were two investigation questions asked: (1) Will there be significant differences in the learning results and in the ocular fixation parameters between students and expert versus non-expert teachers in Art History differentiating students with official degrees versus students with non-official degrees (University of Experience - Adult education)? and (2) Will clusters of each participant with learning results and ocular fixation parameters coincide with the type of participants (students with official degrees, students with non-official degrees (University of Experience - Adult education) and teachers)?

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>iViewer XTM</td>
			<td>iViewer</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SMI Experimenter Center 3.0</td>
			<td>SMI</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SMI Be Gaze</td>
			<td>SMI</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

eye-tracking technology and data-mining techniques used for a behavioral analysis of adults engaged in learning processes

Behavioral analysis of adults engaged in learning tasks is a major challenge in the field of adult education. Nowadays, in a world of continuous technological changes and scientific advances, there is a need for life-long learning and education within both formal and non-formal educational environments. In response to this challenge, the use of eye-tracking technology and data-mining techniques, respectively, for supervised (mainly prediction) and unsupervised (specifically cluster analysis) learning, provide methods for the detection of forms of learning among users and/or the classification of their learning styles. In this study, a protocol is proposed for the study of learning styles among adults with and without previous knowledge at different ages (18 to 69-year-old) and at different points throughout the learning process (start and end). Statistical analysis-of-variance techniques mean that differences may be detected between the participants by type of learner and previous knowledge of the task. Likewise, the use of&#160;unsupervised learning clustering techniques throws light on similar forms of learning among the participants across different groups. All these data will facilitate personalized proposals from the teacher for the presentation of each task at different points in the chain of information processing. It will likewise be easier for the teacher to adapt teaching materials to the learning needs of each student or group of students with similar characteristics.

The 36 participants recruited for the present study were from three groups of adults (students from the university of experience, university professors, and undergraduate and master&#39;s degree students) with ages ranging between [18&#160;and 69] years (Table 2). The protocol was tested over 20 months at the University of Burgos. An outline of the development can be seen in Table 4.
Tab...

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Eye-tracking Technology and Data-mining Techniques used for a Behavioral Analysis of Adults engaged in Learning Processes

We present a protocol for a behavioral analysis of adults (ages 18 to 70-year-old) engaged in learning processes, undertaking tasks designed for Self-Regulated Learning (SRL). The participants, university teachers and students, and adults from the University of Experience, were monitored with eye-tracking devices and the data were analyzed with data-mining techniques.

Behavioral analysis of adults engaged in learning tasks is a major challenge in the field of adult education. Nowadays, in a world of continuous ...

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