Sequencing was performed at the UC Davis DNA Technologies Core. We thank the lab of Lin Tian at UC Davis for training on rAAV packaging and generously gifting us AAV helper and rep/cap plasmids. This work was supported by NIH/NIGMS R35GM119831.

The authors declare no competing financial interests.

This protocol&#160;describes an rAAV-based method for the deployment of enhancer-driven transgenes in the postnatal mouse brain. In this generalized protocol, a candidate enhancer, a minimal promoter, a reporter gene, and an optional barcode sequence are cloned into an AAV plasmid backbone. These experiments can be done with a single candidate enhancer sequence or with many sequences in parallel. The plasmid is packaged into an rAAV and delivered to the postnatal mouse brain. After a period of time to allow for virus tra...

Enhancers are genomic cis-regulatory elements that serve as transcription factor binding sites and can drive the expression of a target gene in a spatiotemporally specific manner1,2. They are differentially active in different cell types, tissues, and stages of development and can be substrates of disease risk-related genomic variation3,4. Thus, the need to understand the dynamics of enhancer function is critical to progress in both translational and basic science applications within genomics. In silico predictions of enhancer activity can serve as excellent resources for generating hypotheses as to enhancer capability5,6. Such predicted enhancer activity can require additional validation and interrogation for a full understanding of the functional activity. Enhancer reporter assays have proved valuable for this purpose across a variety of systems, from cells to animals7,8,9. Towards extending these studies in a flexible and cost-effective transient in vivo context, this protocol describes the use of in vivo AAV-based methods to test putative enhancer sequences for their ability to drive the expression of an ectopic reporter gene in the postnatal mouse brain. This family of methods has utility for interrogating single candidate sequences or parallel library screening and is relevant for basic and translational research.
This method combines in a single plasmid a putative enhancer candidate DNA sequence with a reporter gene (here EGFP), under the control of a minimal promoter that alone does not drive significant expression. The plasmid is packaged into recombinant AAV (rAAV) and injected into an animal model. While the application here is to the brain, various rAAV serotypes enable infection across different tissue types so that this approach can be extended to other systems10. After a period of time, the brain can be collected and assayed for the expression of the reporter gene. Strong expression, compared with controls, indicates that the tested candidate sequence was able to &#34;enhance&#34; the expression of the gene (Figure 1). This simple design offers an easy and clear approach to test a sequence for enhancer activity in vivo in the brain.
In addition to testing for enhancer capability of a sequence, this method can be combined with techniques to determine cell-type enhancer activity. In sequence-based approaches to determining differential enhancer activity, sorting cells on cell-type-specific markers prior to DNA and RNA sequencing can allow researchers to determine if different cell types show differential enhancer activity, as was described in Gisselbrecht et al.11. In imaging-based approaches, co-labeling images with cell-type-specific markers allows examination of&#160;whether cells exhibiting enhancer-driven fluorescence also display cell-type markers of interest12,13,14,15,16. Enhancer reporter assays enable direct testing of risk-associated allelic variation in enhancers for effects on enhancer capability. The vast majority of risk loci identified in genome-wide association studies (GWAS) lie in non-coding regions of the genome17. Functional annotation studies of these risk loci indicate that a large portion likely act as enhancers18,19,20. MPRA deployment in vivo can allow testing of these risk-associated variants for enhancer activity in brain12,21. Finally, delivery and collection at different time points can offer insights into the developmental stages during which an enhancer is active.
Enhancer-reporter plasmid designs are diverse and can be customized to suit experimental goals. There are several options for minimal promoters that have been used in enhancer research, such as the human &#946;-globin minimal promoter22 and the mouse Hsp68 minimal promoter23. These promoters are known to drive low levels of expression unless coupled with an enhancer element to activate them. In contrast, constitutive promoter elements drive strong expression of the transgene, useful for positive control or to test for enhancer function against a background of robust expression. Common choices for constitutive promoters include CAG, a hybrid promoter derived from the chicken &#946;-actin promoter and the cytomegalovirus immediate-early enhancer24, or human EF1&#945;25. Since enhancers are known to work bidirectionally26, the orientation and location of the enhancer relative to the minimal promoter are flexible (Figure 2A). Traditional enhancer-reporter assays place the enhancer upstream of the promoter and, in library deliveries, include a barcode sequence downstream of the reporter gene to associate sequencing reads with the tested enhancer27. However, enhancers can also be placed in the open reading frame of the reporter gene and serve as their own barcode sequence, as is done in STARR-seq28. The protocol described here utilizes the STARR-seq assay design, placing the candidate enhancer sequence into the 3&#39; UTR of the reporter gene. While the STARR-seq orientation offers the benefit of more streamlined cloning, it is less well understood than the conventional approach and may induce variable RNA stability between constructs. The described methods can be easily adapted to either the STARR-seq or conventional orientation with minor alterations to the cloning process that have been described elsewhere27,29.
Different methods of AAV delivery can be employed to further customize this technique to fit experimental goals (Figure 2B). Direct intracranial injections, described further in this protocol, deliver a high concentration of virus directly to the brain30. This gives a high transduction efficiency centered at the site of injection, making this an excellent technique for experiments looking to maximize the density of transduced cells over an area of tissue. Stereotactic injection can help standardize the site of injection across animals for reproducible localized transduction. Intracranial injections are most straightforward in early postnatal animals. As an alternative technique, systemic injections can deliver transgenes using AAVs with serotypes capable of crossing the blood-brain barrier31. Tail-vein injections allow the virus to circulate throughout the body, enabling generalized delivery across many tissues10. Retro-orbital injections are another systemic injection technique that delivers the virus behind the eye into the retro-orbital sinus32. This offers a more direct route for the AAV from the venous system to the brain, resulting in a higher concentration of transduced cells in the brain than injections into more peripheral blood vessels33.
Another flexible aspect of this technique is the method of readout. Broadly, options can be described as reporter-based or sequencing-based (Figure 2C). Incorporating a fluorescent reporter such as GFP into the open reading frame of the construct results in the expression of the fluorescent protein in any transduced cells where the candidate enhancer drove expression. Labeling and imaging techniques such as immunohistochemistry enable signal amplification. Sequencing-based readout techniques involve identifying sequences from the delivered construct in RNA collected from the tissue. By quantifying the amount of viral DNA that was initially delivered, the comparison of expressed RNA versus delivered DNA can be used to determine the degree to which a tested enhancer sequence was capable of driving increased expression of the transgene, for example, in the context of a massively parallel reporter assay (MPRA). MPRAs offer a powerful expansion of these techniques to test up to thousands of candidate enhancers for activity simultaneously and have been described extensively in genomics research12,27,34,35,36. Higher throughput screening is achieved by executing cloning, packaging, delivery, and sequencing steps for candidate enhancers in batch rather than individually.
Candidate enhancer selection provides another opportunity for flexibility (Figure 2D). For example, this assay can be used to identify enhancers of a specific gene, to ascertain the function of non-coding DNA regions of interest, or to determine specific cell types or developmental stages during which an enhancer is active - all of which serve goals both in basic science and in disease research. Generally, candidate enhancer selection is driven by in silico predictions of enhancer activity. Commonly, in silico predictions include ChIP-seq for histone modifications that indicate likely enhancers, such as H3K27ac37 and chromatin accessibility mapping38. Finally, a growing area of research is the function-based screening of synthetically designed enhancer elements, enabling studies of how enhancer sequence directs function39 and the design of enhancers with specific properties40.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>10x Citrate Buffer</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>C9999-1000ML</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>5&#39;-gatcactctcggcatggac-3&#39;</td>
			<td>Integrated DNA Technologies</td>
			<td>N/A: Custom designed</td>
			<td>Forward primer for verifying clones after transformation. These primers are specific to the vector used and were designed for the specific vector used in our experiments.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>5&#39;-gatggctggcaactagaagg-3&#39;</td>
			<td>Integrated DNA Technologies</td>
			<td>N/A: Custom designed</td>
			<td>Reverse primer for verifying clones after transformation. These primers are specific to the vector used and were designed for the specific vector used in our experiments.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Agarose</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>VWRVN605-500G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Aspirator tube assemblies</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>A5177-5EA</td>
			<td>for mouth-driven delivery of rAAV</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bacteriological petri dishes</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>08-757-100D</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Carbenicillin</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>C1389-5G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chicken IgY anti-GFP</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>A10262</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Confocal microscope</td>
			<td>Zeiss</td>
			<td>LSM900</td>
			<td>The images were taken on the LSM800 model, but Zeiss launched the LSM900 model in recent years to replace LSM800.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Conical centrifuge tubes 15 mL</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>12-565-269</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cryomolds</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>NC9806558</td>
			<td>These molds are suitable for P28 mouse brain. Other sizes may be more suitable for larger or smaller tissues.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DAPI</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>D9542-10MG</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dissecting scissors, 4.5&#34;</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>82027-578</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Donkey anti-chicken AlexaFlour-488</td>
			<td>Jackson ImmunoResearch</td>
			<td>703-545-155</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dulbecco&#39;s PBS 1x</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>MT21031CV</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Eppendorf Microcentrifuge tubes 2.0 mL</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>22431048</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Falcon round-bottom tubes 14 mL</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>352059</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fast Green dye</td>
			<td>Grainger</td>
			<td>F0099-1G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fine detail paint brush set</td>
			<td>Artbrush Tower</td>
			<td>B014GWCLFO</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gibson Assembly Master Mix</td>
			<td>NEB</td>
			<td>E2611S</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass capillary tubes</td>
			<td>Drummond Scientific Company</td>
			<td>5-000-2005</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HiSpeed Plasmid Maxi Kit</td>
			<td>QIAGEN</td>
			<td>12663</td>
			<td>Commercial plasmid maxi prep kit</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HyClone HyPure Molecular Biology Grade Water</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>SH30538.03</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>IV butterfly infusion set with 12&#34; tubing and 25G needle</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>26708</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Kimwipes</td>
			<td>Kimberly Clark</td>
			<td>34155</td>
			<td>Lint-free wipe</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LB Agar</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>BP1425-500</td>
			<td>LB agar pre-mix for selective media</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>McPherson Vannas iris scissor</td>
			<td>Integra LifeSciences</td>
			<td>360-215</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mineral oil</td>
			<td>Sigma Life Science</td>
			<td>69794-500ML</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NEB Stable Competent E. coli</td>
			<td>NEB</td>
			<td>C3040I</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NucleoSpin Gel and PCR Clean-Up</td>
			<td>Takara</td>
			<td>740609.5</td>
			<td>Kit for enzymatic reaction cleanup and gel extraction</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>OCT medium</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>25608-930</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Orbital shaker</td>
			<td>Cole Parmer</td>
			<td>60-100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Paraformaldehyde</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>158127-500G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PCR strip tubes 0.2 mL</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>490003-692</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Peristaltic pump</td>
			<td>Gilson</td>
			<td>F155005</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phosphate buffered saline (PBS) 10x</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>70011044</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phusion Hot Start II High Fidelity DNA Polymerase</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>F549L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Powdered milk</td>
			<td>Sunny Select</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ProLong Gold Antifade Mountant</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>P36934</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>QIAquick PCR Purification Kit</td>
			<td>QIAGEN</td>
			<td>28106</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>rCutSmart Buffer</td>
			<td>NEB</td>
			<td>B6004S</td>
			<td>Buffer for restriction digest with PacI, AscI, and XmaI</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Restriction enzyme: AscI</td>
			<td>NEB</td>
			<td>R0558L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Restriction enzyme: PacI</td>
			<td>NEB</td>
			<td>R0547L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Restriction enzyme: XmaI</td>
			<td>NEB</td>
			<td>R0180L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SOC outgrowth medium</td>
			<td>NEB</td>
			<td>B0920S</td>
			<td>Recovery medium after transformation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sucrose (RNase/DNase free)</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>033522.5KG</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TAE buffer</td>
			<td>Apex</td>
			<td>20-194</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Transfer tubing</td>
			<td>Gilson</td>
			<td>F1179941</td>
			<td>For peristaltic pump</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Triton X100</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>X100-100ML</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Wizard Plus SV Minipreps DNA Purification System</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>A1460</td>
			<td>Plasmid mini prep kit</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

aav deployment of enhancer-based expression constructs in vivo in mouse brain

Enhancers are binding platforms for a diverse array of transcription factors that drive specific expression patterns of tissue- and cell-type-specific genes. Multiple means of assessing non-coding DNA and various chromatin states have proven useful in predicting the presence of enhancer sequences in the genome, but validating the activity of these sequences and finding the organs and developmental stages they are active in is a labor-intensive process. Recent advances in adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors have enabled the widespread delivery of transgenes to mouse tissues, enabling in vivo enhancer testing without necessitating a transgenic animal. This protocol shows how a reporter construct that expresses EGFP under the control of a minimal promoter, which does not drive significant expression on its own, can be used to study the activity patterns of candidate enhancer sequences in the mouse brain. An AAV-packaged reporter construct is delivered to the mouse brain and incubated for 1-4 weeks, after which the animal is sacrificed, and brain sections are observed under a microscope. EGFP appears in cells in which the tested enhancer is sufficient to initiate gene expression, pinpointing the location and developmental stage in which the enhancer is active in the brain. Standard cloning methods, low-cost AAV packaging, and expanding AAV serotypes and methods for in vivo delivery and standard imaging readout make this an accessible approach for the study of how gene expression is regulated in the brain.

Using these methods, a 915 bp sequence in the psychiatric risk-associated third intron of the gene CACNA1C19,49,50&#160;was tested for enhancer activity in the postnatal mouse brain. This sequence was discovered in an MPRA of 345 candidate enhancer sequences centered on psychiatric and neurological risk SNPs12 and characterization experiments are described here as a general example. C57BL/6 mice ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about AAV Deployment of Enhancer-Based Expression Constructs In Vivo in Mouse Brain at JoVE.com

AAV Deployment of Enhancer-Based Expression Constructs In Vivo in Mouse Brain

This protocol describes a novel rAAV-based transient enhancer-reporter assay. This assay can be used to induce enhancer-driven expression in vivo in the mouse brain.

AAV Deployment of Enhancer-Based Expression Constructs In Vivo in Mouse Brain

Enhancers are binding platforms for a diverse array of transcription factors that drive specific expression patterns of tissue- and cell-type-specific ...

aav-deployment-enhancer-based-expression-constructs-vivo-mouse

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

2.5K Views.  University of California, Davis. This protocol describes a novel rAAV-based transient enhancer-reporter assay. This assay can be used to induce enhancer-driven expression in vivo in the mouse brain.

Video: AAV Deployment of Enhancer-Based Expression Constructs In Vivo in Mouse Brain

Transfection of Mouse Retinal Ganglion Cells by in vivo Electroporation

The targeting and refinement of RGC projections to the midbrain is a popular and powerful model system for studying how precise patterns of neural connectivity form during development. In mice, retinofugal projections are arranged in a topographic manner and form eye-specific layers in the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (dLGN) of the thalamus and the Superior Colliculus (SC). The development of these precise patterns of retinofugal projections has typically been studied by labeling populations of RGCs with fluorescent dyes and tracers, such as horseradish peroxidase1-4. However, these methods are too coarse to provide insight into developmental changes in individual RGC axonal arbor morphology that are the basis of retinotopic map formation. They also do not allow for the genetic manipulation of RGCs.
Recently, electroporation has become an effective method for providing precise spatial and temporal control for delivery of charged molecules into the retina5-11. Current retinal electroporation protocols do not allow for genetic manipulation and tracing of retinofugal projections of a single or small cluster of RGCs in postnatal mice. It has been argued that postnatal in vivo electroporation is not a viable method for transfecting RGCs since the labeling efficiency is extremely low and hence requires targeting at embryonic ages when RGC progenitors are undergoing differentiation and proliferation6. 
In this video we describe an in vivo electroporation protocol for targeted delivery of genes, shRNA, and fluorescent dextrans to murine RGCs postnatally. This technique provides a cost effective, fast and relatively easy platform for efficient screening of candidate genes involved in several aspects of neural development including axon retraction, branching, lamination, regeneration and synapse formation at various stages of circuit development. In summary we describe here a valuable tool which will provide further insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying sensory map development.

Transfection of Mouse Retinal Ganglion Cells by in vivo Electroporation

We demonstrate an in vivo electroporation protocol for transfecting single or small clusters of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) and other retinal cell types in postnatal mice over a wide range of ages. The ability to label and genetically manipulate postnatal RGCs in vivo is a powerful tool for developmental studies.

The targeting and refinement of RGC projections to the midbrain is a popular and powerful model system for studying how precise patterns of neural ...

Functional Neuroimaging Using Ultrasonic Blood-brain Barrier Disruption and Manganese-enhanced MRI

Although mice are the dominant model system for studying the genetic and molecular underpinnings of neuroscience, functional neuroimaging in mice remains technically challenging. One approach, Activation-Induced Manganese-enhanced MRI (AIM MRI), has been used successfully to map neuronal activity in rodents 1-5. In AIM MRI, Mn2+ acts a calcium analog and accumulates in depolarized neurons 6,7. Because Mn2+ shortens the T1 tissue property, regions of elevated neuronal activity will enhance in MRI. Furthermore, Mn2+ clears slowly from the activated regions; therefore, stimulation can be performed outside the magnet prior to imaging, enabling greater experimental flexibility. However, because Mn2+ does not readily cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB), the need to open the BBB has limited the use of AIM MRI, especially in mice.
One tool for opening the BBB is ultrasound. Though potentially damaging, if ultrasound is administered in combination with gas-filled microbubbles (i.e., ultrasound contrast agents), the acoustic pressure required for BBB opening is considerably lower. This combination of ultrasound and microbubbles can be used to reliably open the BBB without causing tissue damage 8-11.
Here, a method is presented for performing AIM MRI by using microbubbles and ultrasound to open the BBB. After an intravenous injection of perflutren microbubbles, an unfocused pulsed ultrasound beam is applied to the shaved mouse head for 3 minutes. For simplicity, we refer to this technique of BBB Opening with Microbubbles and UltraSound as BOMUS 12. Using BOMUS to open the BBB throughout both cerebral hemispheres, manganese is administered to the whole mouse brain. After experimental stimulation of the lightly sedated mice, AIM MRI is used to map the neuronal response.
To demonstrate this approach, herein BOMUS and AIM MRI are used to map unilateral mechanical stimulation of the vibrissae in lightly sedated mice 13. Because BOMUS can open the BBB throughout both hemispheres, the unstimulated side of the brain is used to control for nonspecific background stimulation. The resultant 3D activation map agrees well with published representations of the vibrissae regions of the barrel field cortex 14. The ultrasonic opening of the BBB is fast, noninvasive, and reversible; and thus this approach is suitable for high-throughput and/or longitudinal studies in awake mice.

A technique is described for broadly opening the blood-brain barrier in the mouse using microbubbles and ultrasound. Using this technique, manganese can be administered to the mouse brain. Because manganese is an MRI contrast agent that accumulates in depolarized neurons, this approach enables imaging of neuronal activity.

Although mice are the dominant model system for studying the genetic and molecular underpinnings of neuroscience, functional neuroimaging in mice remains ...

Simultaneous ex vivo Functional Testing of Two Retinas by in vivo Electroretinogram System

An In vivo electroretinogram (ERG) signal is composed of several overlapping components originating from different retinal cell types, as well as noise from extra-retinal sources. Ex vivo ERG provides an efficient method to dissect the function of retinal cells directly from an intact isolated retina of animals or donor eyes. In addition, ex vivo ERG can be used to test the efficacy and safety of potential therapeutic agents on retina tissue from animals or humans. We show here how commercially available in vivo ERG systems can be used to conduct ex vivo ERG recordings from isolated mouse retinas. We combine the light stimulation, electronic and heating units of a standard in vivo system with custom-designed specimen holder, gravity-controlled perfusion system and electromagnetic noise shielding to record low-noise ex vivo ERG signals simultaneously from two retinas with the acquisition software included in commercial in vivo systems. Further, we demonstrate how to use this method in combination with pharmacological treatments that remove specific ERG components in order to dissect the function of certain retinal cell types.

Simultaneous ex vivo Functional Testing of Two Retinas by in vivo Electroretinogram System

Ex vivo ERG can be used to record electrical activity of retinal cells directly from isolated intact retinas of animals or humans. We demonstrate here how common in vivo ERG systems can be adapted for ex vivo ERG recordings in order to dissect the electrical activity of retinal cells.

An In vivo electroretinogram (ERG) signal is composed of several overlapping components originating from different retinal cell types, as well as noise ...

Purification of Mouse Brain Vessels

In the brain, most of the vascular system consists of a selective barrier, the blood-brain barrier (BBB) that regulates the exchange of molecules and immune cells between the brain and the blood. Moreover, the huge neuronal metabolic demand requires a moment-to-moment regulation of blood flow. Notably, abnormalities of these regulations are etiological hallmarks of most brain pathologies; including glioblastoma, stroke, edema, epilepsy, degenerative diseases (ex: Parkinson&#8217;s disease, Alzheimer&#8217;s disease), brain tumors, as well as inflammatory conditions such as multiple sclerosis, meningitis and sepsis-induced brain dysfunctions. Thus, understanding the signaling events modulating the cerebrovascular physiology is a major challenge. Much insight into the cellular and molecular properties of the various cell types that compose the cerebrovascular system can be gained from primary culture or cell sorting from freshly dissociated brain tissue. However, properties such as cell polarity, morphology and intercellular relationships are not maintained in such preparations. The protocol that we describe here is designed to purify brain vessel fragments, whilst maintaining structural integrity. We show that isolated vessels consist of endothelial cells sealed by tight junctions that are surrounded by a continuous basal lamina. Pericytes, smooth muscle cells as well as the perivascular astrocyte endfeet membranes remain attached to the endothelial layer. Finally, we describe how to perform immunostaining experiments on purified brain vessels.

We describe a protocol allowing the purification of the mouse brain's vascular compartment. Isolated brain vessels include endothelial cells linked by tight junctions and surrounded by a continuous basal lamina, pericytes, vascular smooth muscle cells, as well as perivascular astroglial membranes.

In the brain, most of the vascular system consists of a selective barrier, the blood-brain barrier (BBB) that regulates the exchange of molecules and ...

HSV-Mediated Transgene Expression of Chimeric Constructs to Study Behavioral Function of GPCR Heteromers in Mice

The heteromeric receptor complex between 5-HT2A and mGlu2 has been implicated in some of the behavioral phenotypes in mouse models of psychosis1,2. Consequently, investigation of structural details of the interaction between 5-HT2A and mGlu2 affecting schizophrenia-related behaviors represents a powerful translational tool. As previously shown, the head-twitch response (HTR) in mice is elicited by hallucinogenic drugs and this behavioral response is absent in 5-HT2A knockout (KO) mice3,4. Additionally, by conditionally expressing the 5-HT2A receptor only in cortex, it was demonstrated that 5-HT2A receptor-dependent signaling pathways on cortical pyramidal neurons are sufficient to elicit head-twitch behavior in response to hallucinogenic drugs3. Finally, it has been shown that the head-twitch behavioral response induced by the hallucinogens DOI and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is significantly decreased in mGlu2-KO mice5. These findings suggest that mGlu2 is at least in part necessary for the 5-HT2A receptor-dependent psychosis-like behavioral effects induced by LSD-like drugs. However, this does not provide evidence as to whether the 5-HT2A-mGlu2 receptor complex is necessary for this behavioral phenotype. To address this question, herpes simplex virus (HSV) constructs to express either mGlu2 or mGlu2&#916;TM4N (mGlu2/mGlu3 chimeric construct that does not form the 5-HT2A-mGlu2 receptor complex) in the frontal cortex of mGlu2-KO mice were used to examine whether this GPCR heteromeric complex is needed for the behavioral effects induced by LSD-like drugs6.

This article describes how to inject viral vectors into the mouse frontal cortex to test behavioral assays that require GPCR heteromeric formation.

The heteromeric receptor complex between 5-HT2A and mGlu2 has been implicated in some of the behavioral phenotypes in mouse models of psychosis1,2.  ...

In Vivo Monitoring of Circadian Clock Gene Expression in the Mouse Suprachiasmatic Nucleus Using Fluorescence Reporters

This technique combines optical fiber mediated fluorescence recordings with the precise delivery of recombinant adeno-associated virus based gene reporters. This new and easy to use in vivo fluorescence monitoring system was developed to record the transcriptional rhythm of the clock gene, Cry1, in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of freely moving mice. To do so, a Cry1 transcription fluorescence reporter was designed and packaged into Adeno-associated virus. Purified, concentrated virus was injected into the mouse SCN followed by the insertion of an optic fiber, which was then fixed onto the surface of the brain. The animals were returned to their home cages and allowed a 1-month post-operative recovery period to ensure sufficient reporter expression. Fluorescence was then recorded in freely moving mice via an in vivo monitoring system that was constructed at our institution. For the in vivo recording system, a 488 nm laser was coupled with a 1 &#215; 4 beam-splitter that divided the light into four laser excitation outputs of equal power. This setup enabled us to record from four animals simultaneously. Each of the emitted fluorescence signals was collected via a photomultiplier tube and a data acquisition card. In contrast to the previous bioluminescence in vivo circadian clock recording technique, this fluorescence in vivo recording system allowed the recording of circadian clock gene expression during the light cycle.

In Vivo Monitoring of Circadian Clock Gene Expression in the Mouse Suprachiasmatic Nucleus Using Fluorescence Reporters

This newly developed fluorescence-based technology enables long-term monitoring of the transcription of circadian clock genes in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of freely moving mice in real-time and at a high temporal resolution.

This technique combines optical fiber mediated fluorescence recordings with the precise delivery of recombinant adeno-associated virus based gene ...

In Vivo Targeted Expression of Optogenetic Proteins Using Silk/AAV Films

The quest to understand how neural circuits process information in order to drive behavioral output has been greatly aided by recently-developed optical methods for manipulating and monitoring the activity of neurons in vivo. These types of experiments rely on two main components: 1) implantable devices that provide optical access to the brain, and 2) light-sensitive proteins that change neuronal excitability or provide a readout of neuronal activity. There are a number of ways to express light-sensitive proteins, but stereotaxic injection of viral vectors is currently the most flexible approach because expression can be controlled with genetic, anatomical, and temporal precision. Despite the great utility of viral vectors, delivering the virus to the site of optical implants poses numerous challenges. Stereotaxic virus injections are demanding surgeries that increase surgical time, increase the cost of studies, and pose a risk to the animal's health. The surrounding tissue can be physically damaged by the injection syringe, and by immunogenic inflammation caused by the abrupt delivery of a bolus of high-titer virus. Aligning injections with optical implants is especially difficult when targeting small regions deep in the brain. To overcome these challenges, we describe a method for coating multiple types of optical implants with films composed of silk fibroin and Adeno-associated viral (AAV) vectors. Fibroin, a polymer derived from the cocoon of Bombyx mori, can encapsulate and protect biomolecules and can be processed into forms ranging from soluble films to ceramics. When implanted into the brain, silk/AAV coatings release virus at the interface between optical elements and the surrounding brain, driving expression precisely where it is needed. This method is easily implemented and promises to greatly facilitate in vivo studies of neural circuit function.

In Vivo Targeted Expression of Optogenetic Proteins Using Silk/AAV Films

Here, we present a method for delivering viral expression vectors into the brain using silk fibroin films. This method allows targeted delivery of expression vectors using silk/AAV coated optical fibers, tapered optical fibers, and cranial windows.

The quest to understand how neural circuits process information in order to drive behavioral output has been greatly aided by recently-developed optical ...

Transpupillary Two-Photon In Vivo Imaging of the Mouse Retina

The retina transforms light signals from the environment into electrical signals that are propagated to the brain. Diseases of the retina are prevalent and cause visual impairment and blindness. Understanding how such diseases progress is critical to formulating new treatments. In vivo&#160;microscopy in animal models of disease is a powerful tool for understanding neurodegeneration and has led to important progress towards treatments of conditions ranging from Alzheimer&#39;s disease to stroke. Given that the retina is the only central nervous system structure inherently accessible by optical approaches, it naturally lends itself towards in vivo imaging. However, the native optics of the lens and cornea present some challenges for effective imaging access.
This protocol outlines methods for in vivo two-photon imaging of cellular cohorts and structures in the mouse retina at cellular resolution, applicable for both acute- and chronic-duration imaging experiments. It presents examples of retinal ganglion cell (RGC), amacrine cell, microglial, and vascular imaging using a suite of labeling techniques including adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors, transgenic mice, and inorganic dyes. Importantly, these techniques extend to all cell types of the retina, and suggested methods for accessing other cellular populations of interest are described. Also detailed are example strategies for manual image postprocessing for display and quantification. These techniques are directly applicable to studies of retinal function in health and disease.

In vivo imaging is a powerful tool for the study of biology in health and disease. This protocol describes transpupillary imaging of the mouse retina with a standard two-photon microscope. It also demonstrates different in vivoimaging methods to fluorescently label multiple cellular cohorts of the retina.

The retina transforms light signals from the environment into electrical signals that are propagated to the brain. Diseases of the retina are prevalent ...

In vivo Calcium Imaging in Mouse Inferior Olive

Inferior olive (IO), a nucleus in the ventral medulla, is the only source of climbing fibers that form one of the two input pathways entering the cerebellum. IO has long been proposed to be crucial for motor control and its activity is currently considered to be at the center of many hypotheses of both motor and cognitive functions of the cerebellum. While its physiology and function have been relatively well studied on single-cell level in vitro, presently there are no reports on the organization of the IO network activity in living animals. This is largely due to the extremely challenging anatomical location of the IO, making it difficult to subject to conventional fluorescent imaging methods, where an optic path must be created through the entire brain located dorsally to the region of interest.
Here we describe an alternative method for obtaining state-of-the-art -level calcium imaging data from the IO network. The method takes advantage of the extreme ventral location of the IO and involves a surgical procedure for inserting a gradient-refractive index (GRIN) lens through the neck viscera to come into contact with the ventral surface of the calcium sensor GCaMP6s-expressing IO in anesthetized mice. A representative calcium imaging recording is shown to demonstrate the feasibility to record IO neuron activity after the surgery. While this is a non-survival surgery and the recordings must be conducted under anesthesia, it avoids damage to life-critical brainstem nuclei and allows conducting large variety of experiments investigating spatiotemporal activity patterns and input integration in the IO. This procedure with modifications could be used for recordings in other, adjacent regions of the ventral brainstem.

In vivo Calcium Imaging in Mouse Inferior Olive

We present a protocol to expose the brainstem of adult mouse from the ventral side. By using a gradient-refractive index lens with a miniature microscope, calcium imaging can be used to examine the activity of inferior olive neural somata in vivo.

Inferior olive (IO), a nucleus in the ventral medulla, is the only source of climbing fibers that form one of the two input pathways entering the ...

In vivo Assessment of Microtubule Dynamics and Orientation in Caenorhabditis elegans Neurons

In neurons, microtubule orientation has been a key assessor to identify axons that have plus-end out microtubules and dendrites that generally have mixed orientation. Here we describe methods to label, image, and analyze the microtubule dynamics and growth during the development and regeneration of touch neurons in C. elegans. Using genetically encoded fluorescent reporters of microtubule tips, we imaged the axonal microtubules. The local changes in microtubule behavior that initiates axon regeneration following axotomy can be quantified using this protocol. This assay is adaptable to other neurons and genetic backgrounds to investigate the regulation of microtubule dynamics in various cellular processes.

In vivo Assessment of Microtubule Dynamics and Orientation in Caenorhabditis elegans Neurons

A protocol for imaging the dynamic microtubules in vivo using fluorescently labeled End binding protein has been presented. We described the methods to label, image, and analyze the dynamic microtubules in the Posterior lateral microtubule (PLM) neuron of C. elegans.

In neurons, microtubule orientation has been a key assessor to identify axons that have plus-end out microtubules and dendrites that generally have mixed ...