Name: synthesis of masarimycin, a small molecule inhibitor of gram-positive bacterial growth
Uploaded: 2022-01-07T14:30:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Synthesis of Masarimycin, a Small Molecule Inhibitor of Gram-Positive Bacterial Growth at JoVE.com

Research was supported by the National Science Foundation under grant number 2009522. NMR analysis of masarimycin was supported by the National Science Foundation major research instrumentation program award under grant number 1919644. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.

1. General methods
NOTE: All compounds were purchased from standard suppliers and used without further purification.
<ol>
	<li>Carry out thin-layer chromatography (TLC) on an aluminum plate precoated with silica gel XG F254. Detect spots under a UV lamp, by immersion in p-anisaldehyde stain, or by exposing to I2 vapor.</li>
	<li>Record all nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectra on a 400 MHz spectrometer. 
	NOTE: 1H- NMR and 13...

Masarimycin is a single micromolar bacteriostatic inhibitor of B. subtilis35 and S. pneumoniae37 growth. In B. subtilis, masarimycin has been shown to inhibit the GlcNAcase LytG35, while the precise molecular target in the cell wall of S. pneumoniae has not been identified37. Synthesis of masarimycin using either the classical organic synthesis or microwave procedure provides the inhibitor in good yi...

Peptidoglycan (PG) is a mesh-like polymer that delineates cell shape and structure in both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria1,2. This heteropolymer is a matrix of amino sugars cross-linked by short peptides3,4,5,6 with a backbone composed of &#946;-(1,4)-linked alternating N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) and N-acetylmuramic acid (MurNAc) residues (Figure 1)1. Attached to the C-3 lactyl moiety of MurNAc is the stem peptide. The metabolism of PG involves a tightly coordinated system of biosynthetic and degradative enzymes to incorporate new material into the cell wall7,8. Degradation of PG is carried out by enzymes collectively referred to as autolysins9 and further classified based on the specificity of the bond cleaved. Autolysins participate in many cellular processes including cell growth, cell division, motility, PG maturation, chemotaxis, protein secretion, genetic competence, differentiation, and pathogenicity10,11. Unraveling the specific biological functions of individual autolysins can be daunting, due in part to functional redundancy. However, recent biophysical8,12,13 and computational studies12 have provided new insight into their roles in PG metabolism. In addition, recent reports have provided further insight into the synthesis14 and membrane-mediated15,16,17 steps in PG metabolism. A thorough understanding of the relationship between degradative and synthetic pathways of PG metabolism could give rise to previously untapped antibiotic targets.
While there have been significant advances in methodology to study glycobiology in eukaryotes, bacterial glycobiology and, in particular, PG metabolism has not advanced at a similar rate. Current chemical approaches to study PG metabolism include fluorescently labeled antibiotics18, fluorescent probes19,20, and metabolic labeling21,22,23,24. These new approaches are providing new ways to interrogate bacterial cell wall metabolism. While some of these strategies are capable of labeling PG in vivo, they can be species-specific19, or only work in strains lacking a particular autolysin25. Many PG labeling strategies are intended for use with isolated cell walls26 or with in vitro reconstituted PG biosynthesis pathways20,27,28. The use of fluorescently labeled antibiotics is currently limited to biosynthetic steps and transpeptidation18.
The current knowledge of bacterial autolysins and their role in cell wall metabolism comes from genetic and in vitro biochemical analysis11,29,30,31,32. While these approaches have provided a wealth of information on this important class of enzymes, deciphering their biological role can be challenging. For instance, due to functional redundancy33, deletion of an autolysin in most cases does not result in halting bacterial growth. This is despite their implied role in cell growth and division7,12. Another complication is that genetic deletion of bacterial autolysins can give rise to meta-phenotypes34. Meta-phenotypes arise from the complex interplay between the pathway affected by the genetic deletion and other interconnected pathways. For instance, a meta-phenotype can arise via a direct effect such as the lack of an enzyme, or an indirect effect such as a disruption of regulators.
Currently, there are only a few inhibitors of glycosidase autolysins such as N-acetylglucosaminidases (GlcNAcase) and N-acetylmuramidases, which can be used as chemical probes to study the degradation of PG. To address this, the diamide masarimycin (previously termed as fgkc) has been identified and characterized35 as a bacteriostatic inhibitor of Bacillus subtilis growth that targets the GlcNAcase LytG32 (Figure 1). LytG is an exo-acting GlcNAcase36, a member of cluster 2 within glycosyl hydrolase family 73 (GH73). It is the major active GlcNAcase during vegetative growth32. To our knowledge, masarimycin is the first inhibitor of a PG-acting GlcNAcase that inhibits cellular growth. Additional studies of masarimycin with Streptococcus pneumoniae found that masarimycin likely inhibits cell wall metabolism in this organism37. Here, the preparation of masarimycin is reported for use as a chemical biology probe to study physiology in the Gram-positive organisms B. subtilis, and S. pneumoniae. Examples of morphological analysis of sub-minimum inhibitory concentration treatment with masarimycin, as well as a synergy/antagonism assay are presented. Synergy and antagonism assays using antibiotics with well-defined modes of action can be a useful way to explore connections between cellular processes38,39,40.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>2-Iodobenzoic acid</td>
			<td>SIGMA-ALDRICH</td>
			<td>I7675-25G</td>
			<td>corrosive, irritant, light yellow to orange-brown powder</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>2-Propanol</td>
			<td>SIGMA-ALDRICH</td>
			<td>109827-4L</td>
			<td>flammable, irritant, colorless liquid</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Acetonitrile</td>
			<td>SIGMA-ALDRICH</td>
			<td>34851-4L</td>
			<td>flammable, irritant, colorless liquid</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Aluminum backed silica plates</td>
			<td>Sorbtech</td>
			<td>4434126</td>
			<td>silica gel XG F254 on aluminum backed plates</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>chloroform-d</td>
			<td>SIGMA-ALDRICH</td>
			<td>151823-50G</td>
			<td>solvent for NMR</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Compact Mass Spectrometer</td>
			<td>Advion-Interchim</td>
			<td>Advion CMS</td>
			<td>compact mass spectrometer equiped with APCI source and atmospheric solids analysis probe</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Corning Costar 96 well flat bottom plates-sterile</td>
			<td>fisher chemical</td>
			<td>07-200-90</td>
			<td>for synergy/antagonism assays</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>cover slips</td>
			<td>fisher chemical</td>
			<td>12-547</td>
			<td>for microscopy</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cyclohexanecarboxaldehyde</td>
			<td>CHEM-IMPEX INT&#39;L INC.</td>
			<td>24451</td>
			<td>flammable, irritant, colorless to pink liquid</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cyclohexyl isocyanide</td>
			<td>SIGMA-ALDRICH</td>
			<td>133302-5G</td>
			<td>irritant, colorless liquid, extremly unpleasant odor</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cyclohexylamine</td>
			<td>SIGMA-ALDRICH</td>
			<td>240648-100ML</td>
			<td>corrosive, flammable, irritant, colorless liquid unless contaminated</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethyl acetate</td>
			<td>SIGMA-ALDRICH</td>
			<td>537446-4L</td>
			<td>flammable, irritant, colorless liquid</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>flash silica cartridge (12g)</td>
			<td>Advion-Interchim</td>
			<td>PF-50SIHP-F0012</td>
			<td>pack of flash silica columns (12g) for purification of masarimycin</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>formaldehyde</td>
			<td>SIGMA-ALDRICH</td>
			<td>F8775-25ML</td>
			<td>fixing agent for microscopy</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HEPES</td>
			<td>SIGMA-ALDRICH</td>
			<td>H8651-25G</td>
			<td>buffer for microscopy fixing solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hexane, mixture of isomers</td>
			<td>SIGMA-ALDRICH</td>
			<td>178918-4L</td>
			<td>environmentally damaging, flammable, irritant, health hazard, colorless liquid</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>High performance compact mass spectrometer</td>
			<td>Advion</td>
			<td>expression</td>
			<td>Atmospheric Solids Analysis Probe (ASAP), low resolution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>High Vac</td>
			<td>eppendorf</td>
			<td>Vacufuge plus</td>
			<td>vacuum aided by centrifugal force and temperature</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hydrochloric acid</td>
			<td>SIGMA-ALDRICH</td>
			<td>258148-2.5L</td>
			<td>corrosive, irritant, colorless liquid</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>hydrochloric acid</td>
			<td>SIGMA-ALDRICH</td>
			<td>320331-2.5L</td>
			<td>strong acid</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>immersion oil</td>
			<td>fisher chemical</td>
			<td>12-365-19</td>
			<td>for microscopy</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Iodine, resublimed crystals</td>
			<td>Alfa Aesar</td>
			<td>41955</td>
			<td>environmentally damaging, irritant, health hazard, dark grey/purple crystals</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mestre Mnova</td>
			<td>MestreLab Research</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>software for processing NMR spectra</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Methanol</td>
			<td>SIGMA-ALDRICH</td>
			<td>439193-4L</td>
			<td>flammable, toxic, health hazard, colorless liquid</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>methylene blue</td>
			<td>SIGMA-ALDRICH</td>
			<td>M9140-25G</td>
			<td>microscopy stain for staining cell walls</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>meuller-hinton agar plates + 5% sheep blood</td>
			<td>fisher chemical</td>
			<td>B21176X</td>
			<td>growth media for Streptococcus pneumoniae</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>meuller-hinton broth</td>
			<td>fisher chemical</td>
			<td>DF0757-17-6</td>
			<td>growth media for Streptococcus pneumoniae</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>microscope slides</td>
			<td>fisher chemical</td>
			<td>22-310397</td>
			<td>for microscopy</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microwave Synthesis Labstation</td>
			<td>MILESTONE</td>
			<td>START SYNTH</td>
			<td>device that requires the ventilation of a fume hood, equipped with synthesis carousel</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NMR tubes</td>
			<td>SIGMA-ALDRICH</td>
			<td>Z562769-5EA</td>
			<td>5mm NMR tubes 600 MHz</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)</td>
			<td>Bruker</td>
			<td>Ascend 400</td>
			<td>large superconducting magnet (400MHz)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>optochin</td>
			<td>fisher chemical</td>
			<td>AAB21627MC</td>
			<td>ethylhydrocupreine hydrochloride</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>petrie plates</td>
			<td>Celltreat</td>
			<td>229695</td>
			<td>for preparing agar plates for bacterial growth</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Primo Star Bright field/Phase contrast Microscope with ERc5s camera</td>
			<td>Zeiss</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>for morphology studies</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>puriFlash</td>
			<td>interchim</td>
			<td>XS520plus</td>
			<td>flash chromatography purification system</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>resazurin</td>
			<td>SIGMA-ALDRICH</td>
			<td>R7017-1G</td>
			<td>for synergy/antagonism assays</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rotary Evaporator</td>
			<td>Heidolph</td>
			<td>Hei-VAP Value &#34;The Collegiate&#34;</td>
			<td>solvent evaporator</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium bicarbonate</td>
			<td>SIGMA-ALDRICH</td>
			<td>S6014-500G</td>
			<td>irritant, white powder</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium chloride</td>
			<td>fisher chemical</td>
			<td>S271-1</td>
			<td>crystalline, colorless</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium chloride</td>
			<td>SIGMA-ALDRICH</td>
			<td>S5886-500G</td>
			<td>for growth of B.subtilis and preparation of LB media</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium sulfate</td>
			<td>SIGMA-ALDRICH</td>
			<td>7985592-500G</td>
			<td>anhydrous, granular, white</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>tryptone</td>
			<td>fisher chemical</td>
			<td>BP1421-500</td>
			<td>for growth of B.subtilis and preparation of LB media</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Whitney DG250 Workstation</td>
			<td>Microbiology International</td>
			<td>DG250</td>
			<td>anaerobic workstation. Anaerobic gas mixture used: 5% hydrogen, 10% carbon dioxide, balance nitrogen</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>yeast extract</td>
			<td>fisher chemical</td>
			<td>BP1422-500</td>
			<td>for growth of B.subtilis and preparation of LB media</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Zen Lite (blue) software</td>
			<td>Zeiss</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>for acquiring micrographs</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

synthesis of masarimycin, a small molecule inhibitor of gram-positive bacterial growth

Peptidoglycan (PG) in the cell wall of bacteria is a unique macromolecular structure that confers shape, and protection from the surrounding environment. Central to understanding cell growth and division is the knowledge of how PG degradation influences biosynthesis and cell wall assembly. Recently, the metabolic labeling of PG through the introduction of modified sugars or amino acids has been reported. While chemical interrogation of biosynthetic steps with small molecule inhibitors is possible, chemical biology tools to study PG degradation by autolysins are underdeveloped. Bacterial autolysins are a broad class of enzymes that are involved in the tightly coordinated degradation of PG. Here, a detailed protocol is presented for preparing a small molecule probe, masarimycin, which is an inhibitor of N-acetylglucosaminidase LytG in Bacillus subtilis, and cell wall metabolism in Streptococcus pneumoniae. Preparation of the inhibitor via microwave-assisted and classical organic synthesis is provided. Its applicability as a tool to study Gram-positive physiology in biological assays is presented.

Masarimycin is a small molecule bacteriostatic inhibitor of B. subtilis and S. pneumoniae and has been shown to inhibit the exo-acting GlcNAcase LytG in B. subtilis35,37 and target the cell wall in S. pneumoniae37. Masarimycin can be efficiently prepared either by the classical or microwave-assisted organic synthesis with yields in the 55%-70% range. Microwave-assisted synthesis has the advantage of a si...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Synthesis of Masarimycin, a Small Molecule Inhibitor of Gram-Positive Bacterial Growth at JoVE.com

Synthesis of Masarimycin, a Small Molecule Inhibitor of Gram-Positive Bacterial Growth

A detailed protocol is presented for preparing the bacteriostatic diamide masarimycin, a small molecule probe that inhibits the growth of Bacillus subtilis and Streptococcus pneumoniae by targeting cell wall degradation. Its application as a chemical probe is demonstrated in synergy/antagonism assays and morphological studies with B. subtilis and S. pneumoniae.

Peptidoglycan (PG) in the cell wall of bacteria is a unique macromolecular structure that confers shape, and protection from the surrounding environment. ...

Masarimycin is one of the few inhibitors of bacterial autolysins that halts bacterial cell growth. It can be used to investigate the differences between chemical and genetic inactivation of autolysins, and provides an orthogonal approach to genetics to study bacterial physiology. Synthesis of masarimycin may seem daunting.Closely follow the steps shown. When in doubt if a reaction step worked, confirm by thin-layer chromatography and the changes in RF values. To begin, prepare a 0.1-molar solution of cyclohexylamine, cyclohexyl carboxaldehyde, ortho-iodobenzoic acid, and cyclohexyl isocyanide in methanol.Add magnetic stir bar, then, mix five milliliters of cyclohexylamine and five milliliters of cyclohexyl carboxaldehyde in a capped round-bottom flask and place the flask in a sand bath on a hot plate stirrer for 30 minutes at 40 degrees Celsius. Monitor the temperature using a thermometer placed approximately one centimeter below the sand surface. After 30 minutes, add five milliliters of cyclohexyl isocyanide to the solution and stir for an additional 20 minutes at 50 degrees Celsius.Then, add five milliliters of ortho-iodobenzoic acid to the reaction mixture and continue stirring at 55 degrees Celsius for three to five hours. After three hours of stirring, monitor the progress of the reaction periodically by thin-layer chromatography, or TLC, at approximately one-hour intervals. Consider the reaction complete when only one spot with a retention factor equal to 0.3 is visible on the TLC plate.Remove the solvent in rotatory evaporator under reduced pressure. Once all methanol is evaporated, dissolve the dried crude product in 30 milliliters of ethyl acetate and transfer it to a separatory funnel. Extract ethyl acetate sequentially with one-molar hydrochloric acid, water, saturated sodium bicarbonate solution, water again, and saturated sodium chloride solution, discarding the aqueous layers at each extraction.Then, remove the ethyl acetate layer from the separatory funnel and collect it in an Erlenmeyer flask. Add a spatula full of anhydrous sodium sulfate to remove residual water from ethyl acetate. Filter the dried ethyl acetate solution through a number one filter paper to remove the sodium sulfate.Then, wash the filter paper with a small amount of ethyl acetate. The filtered ethyl acetate solution was evaporated to dryness on a rotatory evaporator under reduced pressure to obtain masarimycin as oil once all the ethyl acetate is removed. Dissolve the masarimycin oil in one to two milliliters of a 9:1 hexane to isopropanol solution and stir on a magnetic stir plate until the entire compound is dissolved.To purify the dissolved masarimycin, perform flash chromatography with a 12-gram, normal-phase, silica flash column. Equilibrate the flash column with 10 column volumes of mobile phase with the instruments set at a flow rate of 15 milliliters per minute. After the equilibration is complete, draw the dissolved masarimycin using a five-milliliter syringe.Connect the syringe directly to the top of the equilibrated flash column and inject the solution into the column. Reconnect the loaded column to the flash chromatography system and initiate the gradient elution. Elute masarimycin from the column using gradient elution to a final mobile phase concentration of 10:90 hexane to isopropanol over 12 column volumes.Monitor the elution of masarimycin via absorption at 230 and 254 nanometers. For the morphology study, grow bacillus subtilis 11774 on LB agar plates at 37 degrees Celsius. In all subsequent experiments, use second-passage cells grown in five milliliters of LB broth until the optical density at 600 nanometers reaches 1.Next, using a pipette, add masarimycin to the culture tubes labeled treated to a final concentration of 3.8 micromoles. For culture tubes labeled control, add an equivalent volume of DMSO. Place the samples in an incubator at 37 degrees Celsius for 90 minutes with shaking at 150 RPM.After 90 minutes, chemically fix the cultures in a 1:10 mixture of culture media and fixing buffer at four degrees Celsius overnight. The following day, use a pipette to apply 10 to 20 microliters of the chemically-fixed samples to glass microscope slides and allow them to air dry. Then, heat-fix the air dried samples by heating the glass slides using a Bunsen burner.After heat-fixing, stain the samples with 100 microliters of 0.1%methylene blue. After a 10 minute incubation with the stain, wash away the excess dye with distilled water. Then, gently heat the stained slides to 60 degrees Celsius in an oven for 15 to 20 minutes to bring the cells to a common focal plane.Seal the stained samples by placing a microscope cover slip over the stained cells. Then, seal the edges using microscope slide cement. Place the sealed microscope slide on the microscope stage and bring the image into focus at 100X magnification using bright-field microscopy.Place a drop of immersion oil on the microscope slide and bring the field-of-view to focus using 1000X magnification. Acquire micrographs using a camera attached to the microscope and its associated software. Acquire images using the software's auto-white balance and aperture settings.Flash chromatography allows for rapid purification of masarimycin with high purity. Evaluation of synergy or antagonism with the ATPase inhibitor optochin in S.pneumoniae is presented here. The lowest concentration of the compound to inhibit bacterial growth, indicated by the blue color, is considered the minimum inhibitory concentration value in the presence of a co-drug.In contrast, wells with pink color indicate bacterial growth. Phenotypic assays using masarimycin at 0.75 times the minimum inhibitory concentrations demonstrated a sausage-like phenotype for B.subtilis and a clumping phenotype for S.pneumoniae. Pay attention to the temperature of the reaction.Ensure that the reaction is complete by monitoring with TLC. This method can be used in conjunction with fluorescently-labeled antibiotics to investigate changes to the cell wall by microscopy.

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Research

JoVE Journal

Biochemistry

Identification of Small Molecule-binding Proteins in a Native Cellular Environment by Live-cell Photoaffinity Labeling

Identifying the molecular target(s) of small molecules is a challenging but necessary step towards understanding their mechanism of action. While several target identification methods have been developed and used to successfully elucidate the binding proteins of a variety of small molecules, these techniques have drawbacks that make them unsuitable for detecting certain types of small molecule-target interactions. In particular, non-covalent interactions that depend on native cellular conditions, such as those of membrane proteins whose structures may be perturbed upon cell lysis, are often not amenable to affinity-based target identification methods. Here, we demonstrate a method wherein a probe containing a photolabile group is used to covalently crosslink to the small molecule binding protein within the environment of the live cell, allowing the detection and isolation of the target protein without the need for maintenance of the interaction after cell lysis. This technique is a valuable tool for studying biologically interesting small molecules with unknown mechanisms, both in the context of basic biology as well as drug discovery.

We describe here a method for identification of small molecule-binding proteins using photoaffinity labeling. The advantage of this technique is that binding and covalent labeling of the target proteins occurs within the live cellular environment, removing the risk of disrupting native protein structure and binding conditions upon cell lysis.

Identifying the molecular target(s) of small molecules is a challenging but necessary step towards understanding their mechanism of action. While several ...

Method for Identifying Small Molecule Inhibitors of the Protein-protein Interaction Between HCN1 and TRIP8b

Hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels are expressed ubiquitously throughout the brain, where they function to regulate the excitability of neurons. The subcellular distribution of these channels in pyramidal neurons of hippocampal area CA1 is regulated by tetratricopeptide repeat-containing Rab8b interacting protein (TRIP8b), an auxiliary subunit. Genetic knockout of HCN pore forming subunits or TRIP8b, both lead to an increase in antidepressant-like behavior, suggesting that limiting the function of HCN channels may be useful as a treatment for Major Depressive Disorder (MDD). Despite significant therapeutic interest, HCN channels are also expressed in the heart, where they regulate rhythmicity. To circumvent off-target issues associated with blocking cardiac HCN channels, our lab has recently proposed targeting the protein-protein interaction between HCN and TRIP8b in order to specifically disrupt HCN channel function in the brain. TRIP8b binds to HCN pore forming subunits at two distinct interaction sites, although here the focus is on the interaction between the tetratricopeptide repeat (TPR) domains of TRIP8b and the C terminal tail of HCN1. In this protocol, an expanded description of a method for purifying TRIP8b and executing a high throughput screen to identify small molecule inhibitors of the interaction between HCN and TRIP8b, is described. The method for high throughput screening utilizes a Fluorescence Polarization (FP) -based assay to monitor the binding of a large TRIP8b fragment to a fluorophore-tagged eleven amino acid peptide corresponding to the HCN1 C terminal tail. This method allows &#39;hit&#39; compounds to be identified based on the change in the polarization of emitted light. Validation assays are then performed to ensure that &#39;hit&#39; compounds are not artifactual.

The interaction between HCN channels and their auxiliary subunit has been identified as a therapeutic target in Major Depressive Disorder. Here, a fluorescence polarization-based method for identifying small molecule inhibitors of this protein-protein interaction, is presented.

Hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels are expressed ubiquitously throughout the brain, where they function to regulate the ...

Quantification of Bacterial Histidine Kinase Autophosphorylation Using a Nitrocellulose Binding Assay

We demonstrate a useful method for quantifying autophosphorylation of purified bacterial histidine kinases. Histidine kinases are known for their involvement in two-component signal transduction, a ubiquitous system through which bacteria sense and respond to environmental stimuli. Two-component signaling features autophosphorylation of a histidine kinase, followed by phosphotransfer to the receiver domain of a response regulator protein, which ultimately leads to an output response. Autophosphorylation of the histidine kinase is responsive to the presence of a cognate environmental stimulus, thereby giving bacteria a means to detect and respond to changes in the environment. Despite their importance in bacterial biology, histidine kinases remain poorly understood due to the inherent lability of phosphohistidine. Conventional methods for studying these proteins, such as SDS-PAGE autoradiography, have significant shortcomings. We have developed a nitrocellulose binding assay that can be used to characterize histidine kinases. The protocol for this assay is simple and easy to execute. Our method is higher throughput, less time-consuming, and offers a greater dynamic range than SDS-PAGE autoradiography.

We report and demonstrate an optimized nitrocellulose binding assay that can be used to quantify autophosphorylation of purified bacterial histidine kinases. Our method has several advantages over traditional SDS-PAGE based techniques, providing a valuable alternative for characterizing these important proteins.

We demonstrate a useful method for quantifying autophosphorylation of purified bacterial histidine kinases. Histidine kinases are known for their ...

Enhanced Sample Multiplexing of Tissues Using Combined Precursor Isotopic Labeling and Isobaric Tagging (cPILOT)

There is an increasing demand to analyze many biological samples for disease understanding and biomarker discovery. Quantitative proteomics strategies that allow simultaneous measurement of multiple samples have become widespread and greatly reduce experimental costs and times. Our laboratory developed a technique called combined precursor isotopic labeling and isobaric tagging (cPILOT), which enhances sample multiplexing of traditional isotopic labeling or isobaric tagging approaches. Global cPILOT can be applied to samples originating from cells, tissues, bodily fluids, or whole organisms and gives information on relative protein abundances across different sample conditions. cPILOT works by 1) using low pH buffer conditions to selectively dimethylate peptide N-termini and 2) using high pH buffer conditions to label primary amines of lysine residues with commercially-available isobaric reagents (see Table of Materials/Reagents). The degree of sample multiplexing available is dependent on the number of precursor labels used and the isobaric tagging reagent. Here, we present a 12-plex analysis using light and heavy dimethylation combined with six-plex isobaric reagents to analyze 12 samples from mouse tissues in a single analysis. Enhanced multiplexing is helpful for reducing experimental time and cost and more importantly, allowing comparison across many sample conditions (biological replicates, disease stage, drug treatments, genotypes, or longitudinal time-points) with less experimental bias and error. In this work, the global cPILOT approach is used to analyze brain, heart, and liver tissues across biological replicates from an Alzheimer&#39;s disease mouse model and wild-type controls. Global cPILOT can be applied to study other biological processes and adapted to increase sample multiplexing to greater than 20 samples.

Enhanced Sample Multiplexing of Tissues Using Combined Precursor Isotopic Labeling and Isobaric Tagging cPILOT

Combined precursor isotopic labeling and isobaric tagging (cPILOT) is a quantitative proteomics strategy that enhances sample multiplexing capabilities of isobaric tags. This protocol describes the application of cPILOT to tissues from an Alzheimer's disease mouse model and wild-type controls.

There is an increasing demand to analyze many biological samples for disease understanding and biomarker discovery. Quantitative proteomics strategies ...

A Western Blotting Protocol for Small Numbers of Hematopoietic Stem Cells

Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) are rare cells, with the mouse bone marrow containing only ~25,000 phenotypic long term repopulating HSCs. A Western blotting protocol was optimized and suitable for the analysis of small numbers of HSCs (500 - 15,000 cells). Phenotypic HSCs were purified, accurately counted, and directly lysed in Laemmli sample buffer. Lysates containing equal numbers of cells were analyzed by sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE), and the blot was prepared and processed following standard Western blotting protocols. Using this protocol, 2,000 - 5,000 HSCs can be routinely analyzed, and in some cases data can be obtained from as few as 500 cells, compared to the 20,000 to 40,000 cells reported in most publications. This protocol should be generally applicable to other hematopoietic cells, and enables the routine analysis of small numbers of cells using standard laboratory procedures.

A standard Western blotting protocol was optimized for analyzing as few as 500 hematopoietic stem or progenitor cells. Optimization involves careful handling of the cell sample, limiting transfers between tubes, and directly lysing the cells in Laemmli sample buffer.

Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) are rare cells, with the mouse bone marrow containing only ~25,000 phenotypic long term repopulating HSCs. A Western ...

Kinase Inhibitor Screening In Self-assembled Human Protein Microarrays

The screening of kinase inhibitors is crucial for better understanding properties of a drug and for the identification of potentially new targets with clinical implications. Several methodologies have been reported to accomplish such screening. However, each has its own limitations (e.g., the screening of only ATP analogues, restriction to using purified kinase domains, significant costs associated with testing more than a few kinases at a time, and lack of flexibility in screening protein kinases with novel mutations). Here, a new protocol that overcomes some of these limitations and can be used for the unbiased screening of kinase inhibitors is presented. A strength of this method is its ability to compare the activity of kinase inhibitors across multiple proteins, either between different kinases or different variants of the same kinase. Self-assembled protein microarrays generated through the expression of protein kinases by a human-based in vitro transcription and translation system (IVTT) are employed. The proteins displayed on the microarray are active, allowing for measurement of the effects of kinase inhibitors. The following procedure describes the protocol steps in detail, from the microarray generation and screening to the data analysis.

A detailed protocol for the generation of self-assembled human protein microarrays for the screening of kinase inhibitors is presented.

The screening of kinase inhibitors is crucial for better understanding properties of a drug and for the identification of potentially new targets with ...

A Semi-High-Throughput Adaptation of the NADH-Coupled ATPase Assay for Screening Small Molecule Inhibitors

ATPase enzymes utilize the free energy stored in adenosine triphosphate to catalyze a wide variety of endergonic biochemical processes in vivo that would not occur spontaneously. These proteins are crucial for essentially all aspects of cellular life, including metabolism, cell division, responses to environmental changes and movement. The protocol presented here describes a nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH)-coupled ATPase assay that has been adapted to semi-high throughput screening of small molecule ATPase inhibitors. The assay has been applied to cardiac and skeletal muscle myosin II's, two actin-based molecular motor ATPases, as a proof of principle. The hydrolysis of ATP is coupled to the oxidation of NADH by enzymatic reactions in the assay. First, the ADP generated by the ATPase is regenerated to ATP by pyruvate kinase (PK). PK catalyzes the transition of phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to pyruvate in parallel. Subsequently, pyruvate is reduced to lactate by lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), which catalyzes the oxidation of NADH in parallel. Thus, the decrease in ATP concentration is directly correlated to the decrease in NADH concentration, which is followed by change to the intrinsic fluorescence of NADH. As long as PEP is available in the reaction system, the ADP concentration remains very low, avoiding inhibition of the ATPase enzyme by its own product. Moreover, the ATP concentration remains nearly constant, yielding linear time courses. The fluorescence is monitored continuously, which allows for easy estimation of the quality of data and helps to filter out potential artifacts (e.g., arising from compound precipitation or thermal changes).

A nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH)-coupled ATPase assay has been adapted to semihigh throughput screening of small molecule myosin inhibitors. This kinetic assay is run in a 384-well microplate format with total reaction volumes of only 20 &#181;L per well. The platform should be applicable to virtually any ADP producing enzyme.

ATPase enzymes utilize the free energy stored in adenosine triphosphate to catalyze a wide variety of endergonic biochemical processes in vivo that would ...

OaAEP1-Mediated Enzymatic Synthesis and Immobilization of Polymerized Protein for Single-Molecule Force Spectroscopy

Chemical and bio-conjugation techniques have been developed rapidly in recent years and allow the building of protein polymers. However, a controlled protein polymerization process is always a challenge. Here, we have developed an enzymatic methodology for constructing polymerized protein step by step in a rationally-controlled sequence. In this method, the C-terminus of a protein monomer is NGL for protein conjugation using OaAEP1 (Oldenlandia affinis asparaginyl endopeptidases) 1) while the N-terminus was a cleavable TEV (tobacco etch virus) cleavage site plus an L (ENLYFQ/GL) for temporary N-terminal protecting. Consequently, OaAEP1 was able to add only one protein monomer at a time, and then the TEV protease cleaved the N-terminus between Q and G to expose the NH2-Gly-Leu. Then the unit is ready for next OaAEP1 ligation. The engineered polyprotein is examined by unfolding individual protein domain using atomic force microscopy-based single-molecule force spectroscopy (AFM-SMFS). Therefore, this study provides a useful strategy for polyprotein engineering and immobilization.

Here, we present a protocol to conjugate protein monomer by enzymes forming protein polymer with a controlled sequence and immobilize it on the surface for single-molecule force spectroscopy studies.

Chemical and bio-conjugation techniques have been developed rapidly in recent years and allow the building of protein polymers. However, a controlled ...

Single Cell Analysis Of Transcriptionally Active Alleles By Single Molecule FISH

Gene transcription is an essential process in cell biology, and allows cells to interpret and respond to internal and external cues. Traditional bulk population methods (Northern blot, PCR, and RNAseq) that measure mRNA levels lack the ability to provide information on cell-to-cell variation in responses. Precise single cell and allelic visualization and quantification is possible via single molecule RNA fluorescence in situ hybridization (smFISH). RNA-FISH is performed by hybridizing target RNAs with labeled oligonucleotide probes. These can be imaged in medium/high throughput modalities, and, through image analysis pipelines, provide quantitative data on both mature and nascent RNAs, all at the single cell level. The fixation, permeabilization, hybridization and imaging steps have been optimized in the lab over many years using the model system described herein, which results in successful and robust single cell analysis of smFISH labeling. The main goal with sample preparation and processing is to produce high quality images characterized by a high signal-to-noise ratio to reduce false positives and provide data that are more accurate. Here, we present a protocol describing the pipeline from sample preparation to data analysis in conjunction with suggestions and optimization steps to tailor to specific samples.&#160;

Single molecule RNA fluorescence in situ hybridization (smFISH) is a method to accurately quantify levels and localization of specific RNAs at the single cell level. Here, we report our validated lab protocols for wet-bench processing, imaging and image analysis for single cell quantification of specific RNAs.

Gene transcription is an essential process in cell biology, and allows cells to interpret and respond to internal and external cues. Traditional bulk ...

MS2-Affinity Purification Coupled with RNA Sequencing in Gram-Positive Bacteria

Although small regulatory RNAs (sRNAs) are widespread among the bacterial domain of life, the functions of many of them remain poorly characterized notably due to the difficulty of identifying their mRNA targets. Here, we described a modified protocol of the MS2-Affinity Purification coupled with RNA Sequencing (MAPS) technology, aiming to reveal all RNA partners of a specific sRNA in vivo. Broadly, the MS2 aptamer is fused to the 5&#8217; extremity of the sRNA of interest. This construct is then expressed in vivo, allowing the MS2-sRNA to interact with its cellular partners. After bacterial harvesting, cells are mechanically lysed. The crude extract is loaded into an amylose-based chromatography column previously coated with the MS2 protein fused to the maltose binding protein. This enables the specific capture of MS2-sRNA and interacting RNAs. After elution, co-purified RNAs are identified by high-throughput RNA sequencing and subsequent bioinformatic analysis. The following protocol has been implemented in the Gram-positive human pathogen Staphylococcus aureus and is, in principle, transposable to any Gram-positive bacteria. To sum up, MAPS technology constitutes an efficient method to deeply explore the regulatory network of a particular sRNA, offering a snapshot of its whole targetome. However, it is important to keep in mind that putative targets identified by MAPS still need to be validated by complementary experimental approaches.

MAPS technology has been developed to scrutinize the targetome of a specific regulatory RNA in vivo. The sRNA of interest is tagged with a MS2 aptamer enabling the co-purification of its RNA partners and their identification by RNA sequencing. This modified protocol is particularly suited for Gram-positive bacteria.&#160;

Although small regulatory RNAs (sRNAs) are widespread among the bacterial domain of life, the functions of many of them remain poorly characterized ...