SC thanks the Whitehead Summer Research Fellowship. MJS thanks the Startup Funds and the Faculty Development Fund at the University of San Francisco. MCH acknowledges funding from the National Institutes of Health (NIH MIRA 5R35GM133684-02) and the National Science Foundation (NSF CAREER 2048265).

1. Electronic absorption spectroscopy: direct titration with buffer competition
<ol>
	<li>Sample preparation
	<ol>
		<li>Prepare a buffered solution of 50 mM 2-[bis(2-hydroxyethyl)amino]-2-(hydroxymethyl)propane-1,3-diol (bisTris) at pH 7.4 using ultrapure water (&#62;18 M&#937; resistance). Remove trace metal ions by incubating with a high-affinity resin for at least 2 h with subsequent filtration.</li>
		<li>Dissolve or dilute a known quantity of the peptide into the metal-free buffer. 
		NOTE: ...

<ol>
	<li>Waldron, K. J., Robinson, N. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=How+do+bacterial+cells+ensure+that+metalloproteins+get+the+correct+metal.">How do bacterial cells ensure that metalloproteins get the correct metal.</a> Nature Reviews Microbiology. 7 (1), 25-35 (2009).</li><li>Puig, S., Thiele, D. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Molecular+mechanisms+of+copper+uptake+and+distribution.">Molecular mechanisms of copper uptake and distribution.</a> Current Opinion in Chemical Biology. 6 (2), 171-180 (2002).</li><li>Huffman, D. L., O'Halloran, T. V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Function,+structure,+and+mechanism+of+intracellular+copper+trafficking+proteins.">Function, structure, and mechanism of intracellular copper trafficking proteins.</a> Annual Review of Biochemistry. 70 (1), 677-701 (2001).</li><li>Kaplan, J. H., Lutsenko, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Copper+transport+in+mammalian+cells:+Special+care+for+a+metal+with+special+needs.">Copper transport in mammalian cells: Special care for a metal with special needs.</a> Journal of Biological Chemistry. 284 (38), 25461-25465 (2009).</li><li>Makowska, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Probing+the+binding+of+Cu(II)+ions+to+a+fragment+of+the+A&#946;+(1-42)+polypeptide+using+fluorescence+spectroscopy,+isothermal+titration+calorimetry+and+molecular+dynamics+simulations.">Probing the binding of Cu(II) ions to a fragment of the A&#946; (1-42) polypeptide using fluorescence spectroscopy, isothermal titration calorimetry and molecular dynamics simulations.</a> Biophysical Chemistry. 216, 44-50 (2016).</li><li>Gaggelli, E., D'Amelio, N., Valensin, D., Valensin, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=1H+NMR+studies+of+copper+binding+by+histidine-containing+peptides.">1H NMR studies of copper binding by histidine-containing peptides.</a> Magnetic Resonance in Chemistry. 41 (10), 877-883 (2003).</li><li>Garc&#237;a, J. E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Spectroscopic+and+electronic+structure+studies+of+copper(II)+binding+to+His111+in+the+human+prion+protein+fragment+106&#8722;115:+evaluating+the+role+of+protons+and+methionine+residues.">Spectroscopic and electronic structure studies of copper(II) binding to His111 in the human prion protein fragment 106&#8722;115: evaluating the role of protons and methionine residues.</a> Inorganic Chemistry. 50 (5), 1956-1972 (2011).</li><li>Jakab, N. I., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Design+of+histidine+containing+peptides+for+better+understanding+of+their+coordination+mode+toward+copper(II)+by+CD+spectroscopy.">Design of histidine containing peptides for better understanding of their coordination mode toward copper(II) by CD spectroscopy.</a> Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry. 101 (10), 1376-1385 (2007).</li><li>Keltner, Z., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mass+spectrometric+characterization+and+activity+of+zinc-activated+proinsulin+C-peptide+and+C-peptide+mutants.">Mass spectrometric characterization and activity of zinc-activated proinsulin C-peptide and C-peptide mutants.</a> Analyst. 135 (2), 278-288 (2010).</li><li>Whittal, R. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=a+Copper+binding+to+octarepeat+peptides+of+the+prion+protein+monitored+by+mass+spectrometry.">a Copper binding to octarepeat peptides of the prion protein monitored by mass spectrometry.</a> Protein science: a publication of the Protein Society. 9 (2), 332-343 (2000).</li><li>&#379;amoj&#263;, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+pentapeptide+with+tyrosine+moiety+as+fluorescent+chemosensor+for+selective+nanomolar-level+detection+of+copper(II)+ions.">A pentapeptide with tyrosine moiety as fluorescent chemosensor for selective nanomolar-level detection of copper(II) ions.</a> International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 21 (3), 1-16 (2020).</li><li>Beuning, C. N., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Measurement+of+interpeptidic+Cu+II+exchange+rate+constants+of+Cu+II+-amyloid-&#946;+complexes+to+small+peptide+motifs+by+tryptophan+fluorescence+quenching.">Measurement of interpeptidic Cu II exchange rate constants of Cu II -amyloid-&#946; complexes to small peptide motifs by tryptophan fluorescence quenching.</a> Inorganic Chemistry. 60 (11), 7650-7659 (2021).</li><li>Makowska, J., &#379;amoj&#263;, K., Wyrzykowski, D., Wiczk, W., Chmurzy&#324;ski, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Copper(II)+complexation+by+fragment+of+central+part+of+FBP28+protein+from+Mus+musculus.">Copper(II) complexation by fragment of central part of FBP28 protein from Mus musculus.</a> Biophysical Chemistry. 241, 55-60 (2018).</li><li>Stevenson, M. J., Farran, I. C., Uyeda, K. S., San Juan, J. A., Heffern, M. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Analysis+of+metal+effects+on+C-peptide+structure+and+internalization.">Analysis of metal effects on C-peptide structure and internalization.</a> ChemBioChem. 20 (19), 2447-2453 (2019).</li><li>Stevenson, M. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Elucidation+of+a+copper+binding+site+in+proinsulin+C-peptide+and+its+implications+for+metal-modulated+activity.">Elucidation of a copper binding site in proinsulin C-peptide and its implications for metal-modulated activity.</a> Inorganic Chemistry. 59 (13), 9339-9349 (2020).</li><li>Magyar, J. S., Godwin, H. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Spectropotentiometric+analysis+of+metal+binding+to+structural+zinc-binding+sites:+Accounting+quantitatively+for+pH+and+metal+ion+buffering+effects.">Spectropotentiometric analysis of metal binding to structural zinc-binding sites: Accounting quantitatively for pH and metal ion buffering effects.</a> Analytical Biochemistry. 320, 39-54 (2003).</li><li>Ferreira, C. M. H., Pinto, I. S. S., Soares, E. V., Soares, H. M. V. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=(Un)suitability+of+the+use+of+pH+buffers+in+biological,+biochemical+and+environmental+studies+and+their+interaction+with+metal+ions+-+a+review.">(Un)suitability of the use of pH buffers in biological, biochemical and environmental studies and their interaction with metal ions - a review.</a> RSC Advances. 5 (39), 30989-31003 (2015).</li><li>Sigel, H., Martin, R. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Coordinating+properties+of+the+amide+bond.+stability+and+structure+of+metal+ion+complexes+of+peptides+and+related+ligands.">Coordinating properties of the amide bond. stability and structure of metal ion complexes of peptides and related ligands.</a> Chemical Reviews. 82 (4), 385-426 (1982).</li><li>Liu, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Metalloproteins+containing+cytochrome,+iron-sulfur,+or+copper+redox+centers.">Metalloproteins containing cytochrome, iron-sulfur, or copper redox centers.</a> Chemical Reviews. 114 (8), 4366 (2014).</li><li>Grossoehme, N. E., Spuches, A. M., Wilcox, D. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Application+of+isothermal+titration+calorimetry+in+bioinorganic+chemistry.">Application of isothermal titration calorimetry in bioinorganic chemistry.</a> Journal of Biological Inorganic Chemistry. 15 (8), 1183-1191 (2010).</li><li>Miessler, G. L., Fischer, P. J., Tarr, D. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Inorganic Chemistry. , (2014).</li><li>Walger, E., Marlin, N., Molton, F., Mortha, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Study+of+the+direct+red+81+dye/copper(II)-phenanthroline+system.">Study of the direct red 81 dye/copper(II)-phenanthroline system.</a> Molecules. 23 (2), 1-23 (2018).</li><li>Kocy&#322;a, A., Pomorski, A., Kr&#281;&#380;el, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Molar+absorption+coefficients+and+stability+constants+of+Zincon+metal+complexes+for+determination+of+metal+ions+and+bioinorganic+applications.">Molar absorption coefficients and stability constants of Zincon metal complexes for determination of metal ions and bioinorganic applications.</a> Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry. 176, 53-65 (2017).</li><li>Zhao, H., Piszczek, G., Schuck, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=SEDPHAT+-+A+platform+for+global+ITC+analysis+and+global+multi-method+analysis+of+molecular+interactions.">SEDPHAT - A platform for global ITC analysis and global multi-method analysis of molecular interactions.</a> Methods. 76, 137-148 (2015).</li><li>NIST. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Critically Selected Stability Constants of Metal Complexes, Version 8.0. , (2004).</li><li>Riener, C. K., Kada, G., Gruber, H. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Quick+measurement+of+protein+sulfhydryls+with+Ellman's+reagent+and+with+4,4&#8242;-dithiodipyridine.">Quick measurement of protein sulfhydryls with Ellman's reagent and with 4,4&#8242;-dithiodipyridine.</a> Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry. 373 (4-5), 266-276 (2002).</li><li>Bradford, M. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+rapid+and+sensitive+method+for+the+quantitation+of+microgram+quantities+of+protein+utilizing+the+principle+of+protein-dye+binding.">A rapid and sensitive method for the quantitation of microgram quantities of protein utilizing the principle of protein-dye binding.</a> Analytical Biochemistry. 72 (1-2), 248-254 (1976).</li></ol>

The authors declare no competing interests.

This article provides a robust method for quantifying the affinity and thermodynamics of Cu(II) binding to peptides. Complexes with Cu(II) are ideally suited to monitor the d-d absorption band at the metal site due to its d9 electron configuration. Although the extinction coefficient is small, thus requiring larger concentrations of the complex to yield a reliable signal, titrations of Cu(II) into peptide can quickly provide insight into the binding stoichiometry and approximate binding affinity. However, it c...

Biology has evolved to utilize the diverse chemistry of metal ions needed for life to adapt and survive in its surrounding environment. An estimated 25%-50% of proteins use metal ions for structure and function1. The particular role and redox state of the metal ion is directly related to the composition and geometry of the biological ligands that coordinate it. In addition, redox-active metal ions such as Cu(II) must be tightly regulated lest they interact with oxidizing agents via Fenton-like chemistry to form reactive oxygen species (ROS)2,3,4. Understanding the binding modes and affinity that drive its biochemistry should help elucidate the biological role of the metal ion.
Many techniques are used to study the binding interactions of metals and peptides. These are mostly spectroscopic techniques but also include computer simulations using molecular dynamics, as seen through Cu(II) interactions with a fragment of amyloid beta (A&#946;)5. A widely used spectroscopic technique that is accessible to many universities is nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). By using the paramagnetic nature of Cu(II), Gaggelli et al. were able to show where the metal ion binds on a petide through relaxation of nearby nuclei6. Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) may also be utilized to probe the location and mode of the paramagnetic metal ion binding7. Other spectroscopic techniques such as circular dichroism (CD) can describe the coordination about Cu(II) in systems such as tripeptide systems8, and mass spectrometry can show stoichiometry and to which residues the metal ion is coordinated through fragmentation patterns9,10.
Some of these techniques, such as NMR, are label-free but require large concentrations of peptide, posing challenges for study. Another common technique called fluorescence spectroscopy has been utilized to relate the position of a tyrosine or tryptophan with quenching from a Cu(II)11,12. Similarly, this technique can show structural changes as a result of Cu(II) binding13. However, challenges with these metal-peptide binding studies are that they probe chromophoric amino acids such as tyrosine which not all systems have, that the metal ion binds under a classical model, and that the technique may not be conducive under physiological conditions. Indeed, several peptides are emerging that do not contain such chromophoric amino acids or bind under classical models, precluding the use of these techniques14,15. This article details approaches for assessing binding properties in these scenarios under physiologically relevant conditions.
Biological ligands may adopt different protonation states that can affect metal ion binding such as the imidazole ring on histidine. If pH is not consistently maintained, the results can be convoluted or conflicting. For this reason, buffers are an essential component in the study of metal-protein/peptide interactions. However, many buffers have been shown to favorably interact with metal ions16,17. In addition to competing with the biological molecule of interest, the buffer may have similar coordinating atoms that may be difficult to distinguish from the coordinating atoms of the peptide or protein. In this study, the focus is on electronic absorption spectroscopy and isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) as two complementary techniques for studying Cu(II)-peptide interactions, with special considerations concerning buffer choice.
Electronic absorption spectroscopy is a rapid, widely accessible technique for studying metal-binding interactions. Irradiation with light in the ultraviolet (UV) or visible wavelengths can lead to absorption of metal-centered d-d bands, which provide valuable information on ligand classification, metal geometries, and apparent binding affinities18,19. For these complexes, direct titrations of metal ions into protein or peptide solutions can quantify binding stoichiometries and apparent binding affinities. In some cases, such as d5 or d10 electron configurations, the complex does not absorb light (i.e., is spectroscopically silent). In these spectroscopically silent transition metal complexes, these limitations can be circumvented by using a competing ligand that, upon coordinating to the metal ion, yields detectable charge transfer bands. In either case, this approach is limited to quantifying only stoichiometry and apparent binding affinity, and no insight into binding enthalpy is provided without approximations.
Complementing information obtained from electronic absorption spectroscopy, ITC is an attractive technique for direct and rigorous quantification of the binding enthalpy20. ITC directly measures the heat released or consumed during a binding event and, since the titration takes place at constant pressure, the heat measured is the enthalpy of all equilibria (&#916;HITC). In addition, the stoichiometry of the binding event (n) and the apparent binding affinity (KITC) are quantified. From these parameters, the free energy (&#916;GITC) and entropy (&#916;SITC) are determined, providing a thermodynamic snapshot of the binding event. As it does not rely on light absorption, ITC is an ideal technique for spectroscopically silent species, for example, d5 or d10 metal ion complexes. However, since calorimetry measures heat, any unmatched buffer systems and unaccounted-for equilibria may adversely affect the analysis to accurately determine the metal ion binding thermodynamics, and great care must be taken to address these factors20. If performed with the appropriate rigor, ITC is a robust technique for determining the thermodynamics of metal-protein/peptide complexes.
Here, a chromophorically silent copper-binding peptide, C-peptide, is used to demonstrate the complementary use of the two techniques. C-peptide is a 31 residue cleavage product (EAEDLQVGQVELGGGPGAGSLQPLALEGSLQ) formed during insulin maturation; it lacks chromophoric residues but has been shown to bind Cu(II) with physiologically relevant affinity14,15. The Cu(II) binding site consists of the side chains of a glutamate and an aspartate as well as the N-terminus of the peptide14,15. These coordinating atoms closely resemble those of many commonly used buffered systems. Here, the tandem use of the d-d and charge transfer bands in electronic absorption spectroscopy and ITC in quantifying the Cu(II) binding thermodynamics to C-peptide is shown. The approach from studying Cu(II) binding to C-peptide can be applied to other metal ions and protein/peptide systems.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>1,10-phenanthroline</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>131377-25G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>bis-Tris buffer</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>BP301-100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bottle-top 0.45 micron membrane</td>
			<td>Nalgene</td>
			<td>296-4545</td>
			<td>Any filtration system that removes the resin without introducing contaminants is acceptable</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Copper(II) chloride</td>
			<td>Alfa Aesar</td>
			<td>12458</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EDTA</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>EDS-500G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Electronic absorption spectrophotometer</td>
			<td>Varian</td>
			<td>Cary 5000</td>
			<td>Another suitable sensitive spectrophotometer is acceptable</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>high affinity resin</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>C7901-25G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isothermal titration calorimeter (ITC)</td>
			<td>TA Instruments</td>
			<td>Nano ITC Low Volume</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ITC analysis software</td>
			<td>TA Instruments</td>
			<td>NanoAnalyze</td>
			<td>SEDPHAT (Methods. 2015, 76: 137&#8211;148) may also be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ITC software</td>
			<td>TA Instruments</td>
			<td>ITCRun</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>light-duty delicate wiper</td>
			<td>Kimwipe</td>
			<td>34155</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>loading syringe</td>
			<td>Hamilton</td>
			<td>Syr 500 uL, 1750 TLL-SAL</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>matched cuvettes</td>
			<td>Starna Cells, Inc</td>
			<td>16.100-Q-10/Z20</td>
			<td>Ensure that the window for the small volume cuvette matches the beam height of the spectrophotometer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MOPS buffer</td>
			<td>Alfa Aesar</td>
			<td>A12914</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>spectrophotometer software</td>
			<td>Cary</td>
			<td>WinUV Scan</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>spreadsheet program</td>
			<td>Microsoft</td>
			<td>Excel</td>
			<td>Any suitable spreadsheet program will work</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>titration syringe</td>
			<td>TA Instruments</td>
			<td>5346</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ultrapure water</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>Milli-Q</td>
			<td>Any water is okay as long as &#62;18 M&#937; resistance</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

quantifying the binding interactions between cu(ii) and peptide residues in the presence and absence of chromophores

Copper(II) is an essential metal in biological systems, conferring unique chemical properties to the biomolecules with which it interacts. It has been reported to directly bind to a variety of peptides and play both necessary and pathological roles ranging from mediating structure to electron transfer properties to imparting catalytic function. Quantifying the binding affinity and thermodynamics of these Cu(II)-peptide complexes in vitro provides insight into the thermodynamic driving force of binding, potential competitions between different metal ions for the peptide or between different peptides for Cu(II), and the prevalence of the Cu(II)-peptide complex in vivo. However, quantifying the binding thermodynamics can be challenging due to a myriad of factors, including accounting for all competing equilibria within a titration experiment, especially in cases where there are a lack of discrete spectroscopic handles representing the peptide, the d-block metal ion, and their interactions.
Here, a robust set of experiments is provided for the accurate quantification of Cu(II)-peptide thermodynamics. This article focuses on the use of electronic absorption spectroscopy in the presence and absence of chromophoric ligands to provide the needed spectroscopic handle on Cu(II) and the use of label-free isothermal titration calorimetry. In both experimental techniques, a process is described to account for all competing equilibria. While the focus of this article is on Cu(II), the described set of experiments can apply beyond Cu(II)-peptide interactions, and provide a framework for accurate quantification of other metal-peptide systems under physiologically relevant conditions.

The goal was to quantify and corroborate the thermodynamics of Cu(II) binding to C-peptide using the complementary techniques of electronic absorption spectroscopy and ITC. Due to the robust nature of electronic absorption spectroscopy, a direct titration of Cu(II) into 300 &#181;M C-peptide was performed (Figure 1). Addition of 150 &#181;M of Cu(II) caused an immediate increase in the band at 600 nm, attributed to the d-d band of Cu(II), and continued to increase until 300 &#181;M Cu(II) wa...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Quantifying the Binding Interactions Between CuII and Peptide Residues in the Presence and Absence of Chromophores at JoVE.com

Quantifying the Binding Interactions Between CuII and Peptide Residues in the Presence and Absence of Chromophores

This article focuses on the use of electronic absorption spectroscopy and isothermal titration calorimetry to probe and quantify the thermodynamics of Cu(II) binding to peptides and proteins.

Quantifying the Binding Interactions Between Cu(II) and Peptide Residues in the Presence and Absence of Chromophores

Copper(II) is an essential metal in biological systems, conferring unique chemical properties to the biomolecules with which it interacts. It has been ...

This method will allow the researcher to probe hard to study systems, like peptides and first row transition metal ions, both of which are generally challenging using more standard applications. The main advantage here is using orthogonal techniques because they complement each other well, and that can give more insight into the system and help us to not miss any phenomenon. The method detailed in this video is very well suited for studying other systems.Although we show it with Cu(II)and a peptide, it can be used for many different metal peptide and metal protein interactions. I think the hardest part will be finding a good buffer choice for your metal ion and peptide. I would consult literature to see what buffers have been used by others before.demonstrating the procedure will be Sohee Choi, a graduate student in my research lab. To begin, turn on the electronic absorption spectrophotometer and let it warm up for approximately 15 to 20 minutes before use. Then launch the spectrophotometer software and configure the parameters, such as scanning range of 200 to 900 nanometers, the scan range of 200 nanometers per second, and double beam baseline corrected.Next, collect a baseline with no cuvettes or samples in the beam paths. Using two matched cuvettes in the double beam spectrophotometer, load one cuvette with 115 microliters of ultrapure water and the other cuvette with 115 microliters of the peptide sample while ensuring there are no air bubbles in the cuvettes as these will interfere with the signal. Afterward, place the cuvette with ultrapure water in the reference beam and the cuvette with peptide in the sample beam.Then collect the absorption spectrum of the metal-free peptide. Add a substoichiometric amount of the Cu(II)solution into the cuvette with the peptide sample and record the volume for analysis later. Gently pipe that up and down to mix the solution while avoiding the generation of air bubbles.After equilibrating for five minutes put the cuvette back into the sample cell holder and record the absorption spectrum. Then repeat the addition of Cu(II)aliquots into the peptide solution for various equivalents and record the total volume of Cu(II)added to the cuvette. After initializing the software as described earlier in two matched cuvettes load one cuvette with 115 microliters of ultra pure water and other cuvette with 115 microliters of the copper-phen complex solution.Place the cuvette with water in the reference beam and the cuvette with copper-phen complex solution in the sample beam. Then collect the absorption spectrum of the metal ligand complex. Afterward, add a stoichiometric amount of peptide to the copper-phen complex solution and gently pipe that up and down to mix thoroughly while being careful not to introduce any air bubbles.Next, incubate the solution for five minutes to reach equilibrium. Put the cuvette back into the sample cell holder and record the absorption spectrum. Later, repeat the addition of peptide aliquots into the copper-phen complex solution for various equivalents, and record the volume of peptide added so that the diluted concentration can be determined.First turn on the ITC and launch the ITC software to run the instrument. After the first initialization, rehome the burette and follow the instructions on the screen. Then remove the burette and the cover from the reference cell.Next, remove any water from the reference cell and rinse three times with 450 microliters of degassed ultra pure water. Slowly draw up ultra pure water to the 450 microliters mark of a loading syringe taking care not to introduce air bubbles into the syringe. Then insert the loading syringe into the reference cell until it is approximately one millimeter from the bottom and slowly inject part of the solution until 150 microliters remain in the loading syringe.Afterward, move the loading syringe plunger quickly up and down by approximately 25 microliters several times to dislodge any bubbles on the cell surface. Then slowly inject until the plunger reaches the 100 microliters mark on the loading syringe, thereby dispensing a total of 350 microliters of ultra pure water into the reference cell and replace the reference cell cover. After removing any residual solution from the sample cell, load 450 microliters of 10 millimolar EDTA using a loading syringe and soak for 10 minutes to ensure trace metal ions are removed because the EDTA will bind trace metals.After removing the EDTA solution thoroughly rinse the loading syringe with copious amounts of ultra pure water. Clean the ITC in accordance with the manufacturer's directions by rinsing the sample cell with ultra pure water. Remove any residual water from the sample cell and then condition the sample cell by rinsing with 450 microliters of buffer at least three times.Next, remove the residual buffer that is conditioning the sample cell and load the peptide solution into the sample cell using the loading syringe. Then rinse the titration syringe with 200 microliters of the buffered solution by first removing the plunger. Using a micro pipette, pipette the buffer solution through the hole at the top of the glass titration syringe through the syringe and out the needle below.Later, fully insert the plunger into the titration syringe. Then dip the tip of the titration syringe needle into the metal solution and slowly pull the plunger up causing the metal solution to fill the syringe and resulting in a void volume at the top of the glass part of the titration syringe. To remove the void volume rotate the titration syringe parallel to the floor.Then remove the plunger and slightly tilt the glass part toward the floor. Gently shake the titration syringe so that the solution moves to the glass part of the titration syringe and fills most of the void volume. But ensure that two to three microliters of void volume remain.While keeping the syringe parallel to the floor reinsert the plunger. Then hold the titration syringe upright and dip the tip of the needle back into the metal solution. Next, push the plunger down until air ceases to come out of the needle and load the titration syringe by slowly pulling up the plunger to just above the 50 microliters mark while keeping the tip of the needle in the solution.Carefully insert the glass part of the titration syringe into the burette and screw until finger tight. Afterward, using a light duty delicate wiper absorb the solution that comes out of the titration syringe due to compression of the plunger without touching the tip of the needle. Next, insert the burette with a titration syringe into the sample cell and fasten it securely.To set up the parameters of the ITC software, select the Instrument Control. Set the stirring rate and the temperature. Then under Experiment Details, enter the syringe and cell concentrations in millimolar units.Next, in the Experiment Method section select Incremental Titration. Click on Setup and specify 20 injections of 2.5 microliters and if more resolution is required to observe the binding event increase the number of injections and decrease the volume per injection. Afterward, input the time spacing between each injection so that it is long enough for the signal to equilibrate and return to baseline, typically 300 seconds.Then click the Run button to start the experiment and specify where the data are saved. Titration of Cu(II)was performed into C-Peptide demonstrating that the addition of 150 micromolar of Cu(II)caused an immediate increase at the band at 600 nanometers attributed to the d-d band of Cu(II)and continued to increase until 300 millimolar Cu(II)was added. Further addition above 300 micromolar Cu(II)did not increase the absorption of the d-d ban indicating saturation and that Cu(II)binds to C-Peptide in a 1:1 complex with a log K value of more than six.C-Peptide was titrated into approximately 10 micromolar copper-phen complex and the absorption from the charge transfer band at 265 nanometers decreased indicating that the C-Peptide was able to chelate Cu(II)from the phenanthroline ligand with a log K value of 7.4 to 7.8. The ITC thermogram shows the titration of 1.4 millimolar Cu(II)into 154 micromolar C-Peptide in 15 millimolar MOPS buffer. The binding affinity was found to have a log K value of eight with change in enthalpy as 8 kilojoules per mole.Gibbs free energy as minus 46 kilojoules per mole, and change in entropy as 120 joules per mole per kelvin. A controlled titration of 1.4 millimolar Cu(II)into 15 millimolar MOPS buffer in the absence of C-Peptide shows no binding in the thermogram. I would say making sure everything is clean.If there are metal ions or peptides left over from previous experiments it can drastically affect the stoichiometry and provide unknown competition in the binding experiments. Circular dichroism is another method to study metal peptide or metal protein interactions because it looks at chirality. Mass spectrometry can also interrogate these complexes by looking at changes in mass.This set of techniques has been used by many labs who study metal ions interacting with peptides or proteins.

quantifying-binding-interactions-between-cuii-peptide-residues

Research

JoVE Journal

Biochemistry

2.3K Views.  University of San Francisco. This method will allow the researcher to probe hard to study systems, like peptides and first row transition metal ions, both of which are generally challenging using more standard applications. The main advantage here is using orthogonal techniques because they complement each other well, and that can give more insight into the system and help us to not miss any phenomenon. The method detailed in this video is very well suited for studying other systems.Although we show it with Cu(II)...