Research in the Bianco laboratory is supported by NIH grants GM100156 and GM144414 to P.R.B.

1. Laser trap alignment and testing with polystyrene beads
NOTE: For the setup, refer to Figure 1A,B.
CAUTION: The experimentalist should wear appropriate protective eyewear or laser safety glasses during laser beam alignment. As the optical tweezer system described herein uses both HeNe and IR beams, two separate sets of laser safety glassware are required.
<ol>
	<li>HeNe Beam alignment
	<ol>
		<li>Position all optical components on the breadboard. Align the breadboard so it is as close to a 90&#176; angle as possible relative to the microscope.</li>
		<li>Attach the mating tube containing the objective and telan lens to the microscope (Figure 1A-11,12). 
		NOTE: The telan lens is a lens system that is used to focus the image at the intermediate image plane in the eyepieces.</li>
		<li>Turn on the HeNe laser and open the shutter (Figure 1A-18). The beam should strike filter (Figure 1A-3) at a height of 54 mm reflecting 50% of the light onto mirror 5 (Figure 1A-5). The remaining 50% of the beam strikes mirror 4 (Figure 1A-4) at the same height as mirror 3.</li>
		<li>Adjust mirror 4 (Figure 1A-4) so that the beam strikes mirror 6 (Figure 1A-6) at a height of 51 mm.</li>
		<li>Adjust mirror 6 (Figure 1A-6) so that the beam is directed to the lower galvanic mirror at a height of 51 mm. The beam that exits from the upper Galvanic mirror will be at 57.5 mm.</li>
		<li>Adjust mirror 3 (Figure 1A-3) so that this beam strikes mirror 5 (Figure 1A-5) at a height of 57.5 mm. Once reflected off mirror 5, the beam should strike mirror 9 (Figure 1A-9) at the same height. The beam is effectively recombined at mirror 9, passes through the objective, and telan lens system onto mirror 21 (Figure 1A-21), which reflects it into the objective.</li>
		<li>Place a clean microscope slide onto the stage of the microscope. Turn on the camera and image the beams of the fixed and scanning beams individually on the screen. Starting with mirror 3, then 5 and 9, finally 21, perform small adjustments to position the fixed beam in the center of the screen.</li>
		<li>To ensure that the angle of the beam exiting mirror 21 is 90&#176;, alter the Z-height of the microscope and position the beam imaged on the upper and lower surfaces of the slide. When they are identical, the beam is in the correct position, which is perpendicular to the stage. Shutter this beam using shutter 19 (Figure 1A-19).</li>
		<li>Starting with mirrors 4 and 6, perform small adjustments to position the fixed beam in the center of the screen. Shutter this beam.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Infrared (IR) Beam alignment 
	CAUTION: Perform all steps at low laser power for safety reasons.
	<ol>
		<li>Adjust wave plate 14 (Figure 1A-14) to adjust the ratio of transmitted and reflected beams being split at the beam splitter 2 (Figure 1A-2). Beam splitter 2 reflects the s-component of the laser beam and transmits the p-component.</li>
		<li>The beam that passes through 2, strikes mirror 7 (Figure 1A-7), which deflects the beam onto the lower galvanic mirror. It should follow the path of the HeNe beam onto mirror 21. Perform small movements of mirror 7 to achieve this positioning.</li>
		<li>Adjust mirror 2 so that the beam that is reflected by mirror 2, strikes mirror 10 (Figure 1A-10) at a height of 57.5 mm.</li>
		<li>The beam is reflected from mirror 10 onto mirror 8 (Figure 1A-8) at a height of 57.5 mm. The subsequent beam should strike mirror 9 at the same height. If not, make small adjustments to mirrors 10 and 8 as required.</li>
		<li>Remove the objective and place the head of the power meter over the port in the objective turret.</li>
		<li>Use plates 14, 15, and 16 (Figure 1A-14,15,16) to adjust the power of each laser beam so that they are equal as shown in Figure 1C.</li>
		<li>Put beam expander 1 (Figure 1A-1) into place. Adjust the expanded laser beam to be circular without any coma or astigmatism.</li>
		<li>To test the optical traps, make a solution of 1 &#956;m polystyrene beads suspended in water. Then, place 10 &#956;L of this solution on a microscope slide, place a coverslip on top and seal with nail polish. Place the slide on the microscope stage and test the optical traps by trapping these 1 &#956;m beads. Ensure that the beads are sucked into the traps and held stably when the stage is moved. Trapping should occur equally efficiently from all sides of the trap.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
2. Microfluidic chamber preparation
<ol>
	<li>If the flow cell is a commercially constructed device made from polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) on a coverslip, proceed to step 3. If it is a glass device with connectors attached, proceed to step 4.</li>
	<li>If the flow cell does not have connectors attached, bond them to the entry holes on the microscope slide first. See step 3 for the steps to attach connectors.</li>
</ol>
3. Flow cell connections using a PDMS flow cell
NOTE: For the setup, refer to Figure 2D.
<ol>
	<li>Place the flow cell on a clean flat surface. Hold the PTFE tubing 3 mm from the free end with forceps. Push the tubing into the preformed port (the port can support 2 bar line pressure).</li>
	<li>Repeat this procedure for each of the remaining ports. Connect the inlet ports to the syringe pump and the outlet to a waste bottle (Figure 4A,B).</li>
	<li>Fill each glass syringe with 1 mL of spectrophotometric grade methanol. Attach each syringe to a switching valve. Ensure the valve has the outlet directed to waste and purge each line with 50 &#956;L of methanol (Figure 4C, closed position).</li>
	<li>Switch the outlet position to the flow cell (Figure 4C, open position). Pump 800 &#956;L of methanol through the flow cell at a flow rate of 100 &#956;L/h to wet the surfaces and eliminate bubbles.</li>
	<li>The next day, repeat this process using 800 &#956;L of ultrapure water. The flow cell is now ready for use.</li>
</ol>
4. Attachment of press fit tubing connectors
NOTE: For the setup, refer to Figure 2F.
<ol>
	<li>If press-fit tubing connectors are to be used, carefully remove the adhesive tape from one side of the connector and place it over the hole in the microscope slide. Press down for a few seconds. Repeat the process for the remaining connectors.</li>
	<li>Place the flow cell on a clean flat surface. Hold the PTFE tubing 3 mm from the free end with forceps. Push the tubing into the preformed hole in the port and repeat this procedure for each of the remaining ports.</li>
	<li>Attach tubing from the inlets to the switching valves. Proceed to step 7.</li>
</ol>
5. Attachment of permanent assemblies
NOTE: For the setup, refer to Figure 2A-C.
<ol>
	<li>Perform the attachment either on a clean, flat surface or on a custom-built manifold to hold the flow cell and connectors in place while bonding occurs.</li>
	<li>Place the flow cell on a clean flat surface or in the recessed section of the manifold (Figure 2B). Place a small amount of glass glue on the bottom of the assembly and insert the seal.</li>
	<li>Position the nanoport over one of the entry holes on the microscope slide. Gently push down and hold in place with no lateral movement. Repeat the process for the remaining ports.</li>
	<li>Allow to dry or clamp in place in the manifold. Gently remove the flow cell from the manifold and ensure that the assemblies align well with the entry ports in the flow cell. Proceed to step 7 when ready.</li>
</ol>
6. Flow cell connections and preparation
NOTE: For the setup, refer to Figure 4A,B.
<ol>
	<li>Place a flow cell on the microscope stage. Attach the tubing using the finger-tight connectors.</li>
	<li>Fill each glass syringe with 1 mL of spectrophotometric grade methanol. Attach each syringe to a switching valve. Ensure the valve has the outlet directed to waste and purge each line with 50 &#956;L of methanol (Figure 4C, closed position).</li>
	<li>Switch the outlet position to the flow cell (Figure 4C, open position). Pump 800 &#956;L of methanol through the flow cell at a flow rate of 100 &#956;L/h to wet the surfaces and eliminate bubbles.</li>
	<li>The next day, repeat this process using 800 &#956;L of ultrapure water. The flow cell is now ready for use.</li>
</ol>
7. Control of fluid flow
<ol>
	<li>Turn the switching valves to the closed position (Figure 4C). Remove the syringes, discard the residual water, and fill the syringes with experimental solutions, for example, DNA-beads; enzyme; and ATP. Return syringes to the pump and connect them to the switching valves.</li>
	<li>In this position, manually force the plungers down 5-10 &#956;L to remove any bubbles. Change the switching valve position to Open.</li>
	<li>Use the flow rate scheme to achieve a fluid flow speed optimal for trapping and visualization as outlined in Table 1. The optimal fluid flow for optical trapping should enable stable trapping of beads and once the DNA is stretched, it should be B-form (~3,000 bp/&#956;m).</li>
</ol>
8. Trapping of polystyrene beads with single DNA molecules attached
<ol>
	<li>At 10x magnification, locate the border between fluid streams close to the channel entry points. Add oil to the 100x objective and switch to the higher magnification.</li>
	<li>Open the shutters for the optical traps (either both or one at a time). The focused laser beams should trap beads and DNA should stretch out immediately.</li>
	<li>Once a complex has been trapped, translate the stage perpendicular to the flow (Figure 3A,C, inset). This will move the trapped complex from the DNA bead solution, into stream 2. Further translation will move the complex to stream 3.</li>
</ol>
9. Flow cell cleaning
NOTE: Perform this daily.
<ol>
	<li>Turn off the pump when the experiment is complete. Turn the switching valves to the closed position (Figure 4C).</li>
	<li>Remove syringes and empty them. Rinse three times with filtered distilled water.</li>
	<li>Fill the syringes with cleaning solution. Place syringes in the pump and connect to switching valves.</li>
	<li>Purge switching valves and change the position to open. Pump 800 &#956;L of cleaning solution at a flow rate of 100 &#956;L/h typically overnight.</li>
	<li>The next day, close the switching valves, and then remove and rinse syringes with water. Rinse the flow cell and lines with 4-800 &#956;L of water at a flow rate of 400-800 &#956;L/h. If more strenuous cleaning of flow cells is required, replace the cleaning solution with 6 M guanidium hydrochloride.</li>
</ol>

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The author declares no conflicts of interest.

The careful assembly of the flow system is critical to the successful outcome of experiments4,6. One of the most challenging aspects of the protocol is the attachment of connectors to the glass surface. For this, we use the following two approaches: press-fit fit tubing connectors and nanoport assemblies. Press-fit connectors adhere easily to glass followed by pushing of PTFE tubing into the preformed holes using forceps. When a more stable attachment is required...

The ability to visualize protein-DNA interactions at the single-molecule level and in real-time has provided significant insight into genome stability1,2. In addition to working with single molecules of DNA one at a time, the ability to view transactions between individual molecules nearby provides additional insight3,4,5. The manipulation of additional DNA molecules requires both additional optical traps as well as high-quality, multi-channel, microfluidic flow cells6.
There are several methods available to generate more than one optical trap. These include galvanometer scanning mirrors, acoustic optic modulators, and diffractive optics, which generate holographic optical tweezers4,7,8,9. Often, scanning mirrors and acoustic optic modulators produce traps that timeshare. In the setup described here, the beam of a single Nd:YAG laser is split on polarization, and then galvanometer laser scanning mirrors control the position of what is termed the mobile trap (Figure 1)4. To facilitate the positioning of mirrors and filters to direct the trapping beam to the back aperture of the microscope objective, a HeNe laser is used. This makes overall alignment easier as the HeNe beam is visible to the naked eye, whereas infrared beams are not. The HeNe beam is also safer to work with making the positioning of mirrors and other components less stressful. Initially, the beam path for this laser is separate from the 1064 nm beam, but is introduced into the same beam path, and then into the microscope objective. Once physical alignment is achieved, positioning the 1064 nm beam on top of the HeNe beam is done and this is facilitated by the use of an infrared viewer and various beam imaging tools to visualize beam position and quality. Then, the beam expander is introduced, and the resulting expanded infrared beam is aligned onto the back aperture of the objective. Finally, the objective is removed and the power in each polarized beam is measured and adjusted using &#955;/2 waveplates to be equal (Figure 1C). Power measurements are also done once the objective is returned and typically there is a 53% power loss. There is, however, sufficient power to form stable fixed and moving optical traps in the focal plane (Figure 1D).
To image DNA transactions, microfluidic flow cells play a key role as they permit controlled measurements at the single-molecule level with high spatial and temporal resolution (Figure 2). The term microfluidic refers to the ability to manipulate fluids in one or more channels with dimensions ranging from 5-500 &#956;m10,11. The term stream refers to the actual fluid within a channel and the channel refers to the physical channel in which a fluid stream or streams move. Single-channel flow cell design has a common, physical channel where reactions are observed and there is typically only one fluid stream present. Thus, these designs are known as single-stream flow cells. In contrast, multi-stream flow cells are defined as a microfluidic device in which two or more entry channels converge into a single, common, physical channel (Figure 2A). Within the common channel, the fluid streams that originate from the individual channels flow parallel to one another, and remain separated with only minimal mixing between them occurring due to diffusion (Figure 2B). In the majority of experimental setups, a single pump pushes fluids into each channel at the same speed. In contrast, when boundary steering is used, three or more, independently controlled pumps push fluids through the channels. However, each pump operates at a different speed but the net flow rate in the common channel is constant12. This&#160;permits the rapid exchange of main channel components simply by altering pump speed.
In addition to laminar flow, another critical factor is the parabolic velocity profile within the laminar fluid stream. The highest flow velocity occurs in the middle of the stream and the slowest occurs&#160;next to the surfaces (Figure 2C)13. This profile must be considered to fully stretch a DNA molecule that is attached to a bead held in the stream for precise visualization of fluorescent DNA and accurate single-molecule analyses. Here, the DNA is stretched to B-form and is held in place under 0 pN of force. To achieve this, focusing of the optical trap position should be to a position 10-20 &#956;m from the bottom coverslip surface (Figure 2D). Care must be taken so that the DNA molecule is not stretched beyond B-form as this can inhibit enzyme reactions. Under typical buffer conditions, 1 &#956;m = 3,000 bp of DNA14. Furthermore, by trapping 10-20 &#956;m from the coverslip, the DNA complex is positioned far from the surface thereby minimizing surface interactions.
Many methods have been used to create microfluidic device channels and these can be done in the laboratory or flow cells can be purchased from commercial sources6,15,16,17. The optimal materials used to construct the flow cells must be mechanically rigid, optically transparent with low fluorescence, and impervious to organic solvents6. Frequently, borosilicate float glass, or fused silica are used to provide a stable flow environment for an extended time that is suitable for optical trapping, visualization, and force detection. These materials also permit the use of non-aqueous solvents (e.g., spectrophotometric grade methanol) to simplify surface wetting and removal of air bubbles, and denaturants (e.g., 6M guanidinium hydrochloride) or detergents to clean the flow cell. Finally, the methods used to introduce fluids into flow cells vary from complex vacuum pump systems to single syringe pumps14,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27. In the approach described here, a syringe pump that can accommodate up to 10 syringes is used (Figure 3A). This provides flexibility to use single-channel flow cells or flow cells with multiple inlet channels. Here, a three-channel flow cell is used and is mated to syringes held in place on the syringe pump using poly-ether-ether-ketone (PEEK) tubing (Figure 3A-C). The flow of fluids is controlled by four-way switching valves and thus serve to minimize the introduction of bubbles into the flow cell (Figure 3A,D). In addition, Hamilton gastight syringes which have stiff glass walls and polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)-coated plungers, are recommended as they provide exceptionally smooth plunger motion that is essential to obtaining a smooth flow14,27.
In the experimental system described, flow cells with two to five inlet channels have been used. The number of inlet channels is dictated by the experiment being done. For the study of RecBCD and Hop2-Mnd1, two stream channels were sufficient14,28. For the helicase, the enzyme was bound to the free end of the DNA and translated into a stream containing magnesium and ATP to initiate translocation and unwinding. For Hop2-Mnd1, optically trapped DNA was translated into the adjacent fluid stream containing proteins and buffer &#177; divalent metal ions. The use of three-channel flow cells enables one to trap DNA in stream 1, translate the DNA into stream 2 to allow protein binding to occur, and then to stream 3 where ATP is present, for example, to initiate reactions. A variation on the above is to use fluorescent-tagged protein in channel 2, which results in the fluid stream being completely white and precludes visualization of the DNA. When this molecule is translated into stream 3, both proteins and DNA are now visible when reactions are initiated.
The use of four-way switching valves to control fluid flow is a critical component of the system to eliminate bubbles in the flow cells. Bubbles are detrimental to stable fluid flow as they contract and expand in unpredictable ways resulting in rapid changes in flow velocity and the introduction of turbulence. When the valves are positioned between syringes and inlet tubing, the flow path is disconnected by switching the valve position when syringes are changed out. When the new syringe is put in place, the plunger can be manually depressed so that &#62;6 &#956;L is ejected (the dead volume of the valve) and this eliminates bubbles almost entirely.
The attachment of connectors to flow cells is frequently the rate-limiting step in flow cell use. We describe the use of two types of connectors: removable known as press-fit and permanent ones (nanoport assemblies). The removable connectors are simple to adhere to a flow cell and different types of flexible tubing in addition to the recommended PTFE can be tested with these connectors. This is a rapid and cost-effective way to test tubing and connectors without sacrificing more expensive glass flow cells. In contrast, nanoport assemblies are attached permanently, withstand pressures up to 1,000 psi, and, in our hands, their use is restricted to PEEK tubing of different diameters. This is not a disadvantage as PEEK tubing is preferably used. A single glass flow cell with permanent assemblies attached can be reused for more than 1 year with careful use.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>100x objective</td>
			<td>Leica</td>
			<td>506318 or 506038</td>
			<td>Oil immersion lenses; Imaging and optical trapping only; Plan APO objectives optimized for fluorescence imaging</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>10X Objective</td>
			<td>Leica</td>
			<td>506263</td>
			<td>Used to locate laser beams spots during alignment; to find focus and X-Y position in flow cell</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1 mm fluorescent beads</td>
			<td>Bangs Labs</td>
			<td>FSDG004</td>
			<td>Used for tap performance, focal position determination</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1 mm polystyrene beads</td>
			<td>Bangs Labs</td>
			<td>CPO1004</td>
			<td>Used for trap performance evaluation and binding to biotinylated molecules</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>63x objective</td>
			<td>Leica</td>
			<td>506081</td>
			<td>Used to locate laser beams spots during alignment and to find focus and X-y position in flow cell; can be used for optical trapping as it has an identical back aperture diameter to the 100X; oil immersion lens</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Alignment laser</td>
			<td>Lumentum</td>
			<td>1100 series</td>
			<td>10mW HeNe laser that is visible to the naked eye that is used to position optics</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Beam alignment camera</td>
			<td>Amscope</td>
			<td>MU303</td>
			<td>A simple, inexpensive and software controlled camera for imaging of the beam position</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Camera control and Image capture software</td>
			<td>Hamamatsu</td>
			<td>HCImage</td>
			<td>Coordinates activities of the Lambda DG4 with the camera to facilitate rapid wavelength switching</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Camera; Orca flash 4</td>
			<td>Hamamatsu</td>
			<td>c13440-20cu</td>
			<td>CCD camera for imaging of single-molecule experiments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>C-mount for the beam alignment camera</td>
			<td>Spot imaging solutions</td>
			<td>DE50CMT</td>
			<td>Provides optimal positioning of the camera for imaging of laser beams during alignment</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>C-mount for the Orca Flash 4 camera</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Has a retainer ring to hold an IR blocking filter in place. This eliminates reflected IR beam from the optical traps and facilitates clearer imaging of trapped objects.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cy5&#160; fluorescence filter cube</td>
			<td>Semrock</td>
			<td>cy5-404a-lsc-zero</td>
			<td>Used in conjunction with Lambda DG4 to image Cy5 only</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fitc-Txred&#160; fluorescence filter cube</td>
			<td>Semrock</td>
			<td>fitc/txred-2x-b-000</td>
			<td>Used in conjunction with Lambda DG4 to image FITC and TXRed</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fluidics tubing</td>
			<td>Grace Bio</td>
			<td>46004</td>
			<td>PTFE tubing as an alternate to PEEK; works well on some flow cells. Can be used with PDMS flow cells or glass flow cells when Grace Bio fit tubing connectors are used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>GFP fluorescence filter cube</td>
			<td>Semrock</td>
			<td>gfp-3035b-lsc-zero</td>
			<td>Used in conjunction with Lambda DG4 to image GFP only</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass flow cells</td>
			<td>Translume</td>
			<td>Custom</td>
			<td>Clear flow channels for imaging (Fig. 2E)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass glue</td>
			<td>Loctite</td>
			<td>233841</td>
			<td>Securely and easily bonds Nanoport assemblies to glass flow cells</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass/PDMS sandwich flow cells</td>
			<td>CIDRA Precision services</td>
			<td>Custom design</td>
			<td>Flow cells built according to your specifications; imaging channels are clear (Fig. 2C)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hamilton Cleaning solution</td>
			<td>Hamilton</td>
			<td>18311</td>
			<td>Gentle but efficient cleaning solution for glass flow cells; does not bubble when used carefully</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Illumination system</td>
			<td>Sutter Instrument</td>
			<td>Lamda DG4</td>
			<td>Discontinued so recommend Lambda 721</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Illumination system</td>
			<td>Sutter Instrument</td>
			<td>Lamda DG4</td>
			<td>Discontinued so recommend Lambda 721</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Image analysis software</td>
			<td>Media cybernetics</td>
			<td>Image Pro Premiere</td>
			<td>Analysis of images and single molecule tracking</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Image analysis software</td>
			<td>Fiji/NIH Image/Image J</td>
			<td>Shareware</td>
			<td>Analysis of images and single molecule tracking</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Image display card</td>
			<td>Melles Griot</td>
			<td>06 DLA 001</td>
			<td>Alternate product from Thorlabs: VRC5</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Immersion oil</td>
			<td>Zeiss</td>
			<td>444960</td>
			<td>Immersol 518 F fluorescence free</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Laser beam alignment tools</td>
			<td>Thor labs</td>
			<td>FMP05/M; dgo5-1500-h1; BHM1&#160;</td>
			<td>Used to ensure beams are horizontal and at the correct height</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Laser beam viewer</td>
			<td>Canadian Photonics labs</td>
			<td>IR 3150</td>
			<td>Used to image IR beam spots on mirrors and&#160; targets</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Laser power meter</td>
			<td>Thor labs</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Measurement of laser output as well as trap strength</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Laser safety glasses (HeNe)</td>
			<td>Thor labs</td>
			<td>LG7 or 8</td>
			<td>Blocks &#62;3 OD units of light of wavelengths &#62;600 nm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Laser safety glasses (IR)</td>
			<td>Thor labs</td>
			<td>LG11</td>
			<td>Blocks &#62;7 OD units of light of wavelengths &#179;1000 nm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mcherry&#160; fluorescence filter cube</td>
			<td>Semrock</td>
			<td>mcherry-a-lsc-zero</td>
			<td>Used in conjunction with Lambda DG4 to image mcherry only</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microscope</td>
			<td>Leica</td>
			<td>DMIRE2</td>
			<td>DIC port removed to accommodate Dichroic trapping/alignment mirror</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microscope control software&#160;</td>
			<td>UCSF/shareware</td>
			<td>uManager</td>
			<td>Controls the microscope, permits focal alignment of objectives as well as stage control</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nanoport assembly</td>
			<td>IDEX</td>
			<td>N333</td>
			<td>Connectors that are bonded to flow cells</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Optical table support</td>
			<td>Thor Labs</td>
			<td>PA52502</td>
			<td>Active isolation table support</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Optics and lenses</td>
			<td>Solar TII</td>
			<td>Various</td>
			<td>Interference mirrors, telescopes and lenses custom designed for the system</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PDMS flow cells</td>
			<td>ufluidix</td>
			<td>Custom</td>
			<td>Flow cells built according to your specifications; imaging channels are clear (Figs. 2B and D)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PEEK tubing</td>
			<td>IDEX</td>
			<td>1532</td>
			<td>Provides excellent connection to flow cells and switching valves</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pinkel fluorescence filter cube</td>
			<td>Semrock</td>
			<td>lf488/543/635-3x-a-000</td>
			<td>Used in conjunction with Lambda DG4 to image multiple fluorophores rapidly</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Press fit tubing connectors</td>
			<td>GraceBio</td>
			<td>46003</td>
			<td>Clear silicone connector with adhesive that binds well to glass</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Scanning mirrors</td>
			<td>GSI Lumonics</td>
			<td>VM500</td>
			<td>Used to provide control of the second optical trap. GSI Lumonics no longer exists. Similar mirrors can be purchased from Cambridge Scientific</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stage</td>
			<td>Leica</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stage micrometer</td>
			<td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td>
			<td>68042-08</td>
			<td>Provides on screen ruler for positioning of the beam and system calibration</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Switching valves</td>
			<td>IDEX</td>
			<td>V-101T</td>
			<td>Control direction of fluid flow and eliminate introduction of bubbles into flow cells</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Syringe and valve manifold</td>
			<td>Machine shop</td>
			<td>None</td>
			<td>Custom built</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Syringe pump</td>
			<td>Harvard Apparatus</td>
			<td>PHD 2000</td>
			<td>Controls fluid flow through flow cells</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Syringe pump software</td>
			<td>Harvard Apparatus</td>
			<td>70-6000</td>
			<td>Flow control provides seamless, programmable control of fluid flow</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Syringes</td>
			<td>Hamilton</td>
			<td>81320</td>
			<td>Gas-tight, PTFE Luer Lock, glass barrels with Teflon-coated plungers</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Table top</td>
			<td>Thor Labs</td>
			<td>T36H</td>
			<td>Optical table top or breadboard</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trapping laser</td>
			<td>Newport/Spectra Physics</td>
			<td>J-series; BL106C</td>
			<td>Nd:YAG laser; 1064 nm; 5W laser</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

use of dual optical tweezers and microfluidics for single-molecule studies

Visual biochemistry is a powerful technique for observing the stochastic properties of single enzymes or enzyme complexes that are obscured in the averaging that takes place in bulk-phase studies. To achieve visualization, dual optical tweezers, where one trap is fixed and the other is mobile, are focused into one channel of a multi-stream microfluidic chamber positioned on the stage of an inverted fluorescence microscope. The optical tweezers trap single molecules of fluorescently labeled DNA and fluid flow through the chamber and past the trapped beads, stretches the DNA to B-form (under minimal force, i.e., 0 pN) with the nucleic acid being observed as a white string against a black background. DNA molecules are moved from one stream to the next, by translating the stage perpendicular to the flow to enable the initiation of reactions in a controlled manner. To achieve success, microfluidic devices with optically clear channels are mated to glass syringes held in place in a syringe pump. Optimal results use connectors permanently bonded to the flow cell, tubing that is mechanically rigid and chemically resistant, and which is connected to switching valves that eliminate bubbles that prohibit laminar flow.

The initial testing of the trap alignment and strength is done with 1 &#956;m, non-fluorescent polystyrene beads. Since most of the research done in the laboratory uses fluorescence, we further test trap strength using 1 &#956;m, Dragon green polystyrene beads (Figure 1D,E). Thereafter work changes to optical trapping of DNA-bead complexes where the DNA is stained with the bis-intercalating dye YOYO-114,29. When thes...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Use of Dual Optical Tweezers and Microfluidics for Single-Molecule Studies at JoVE.com

Use of Dual Optical Tweezers and Microfluidics for Single-Molecule Studies

Visual, single-molecule biochemistry studied through microfluidic chambers is greatly facilitated using glass barrel, gas-tight syringes, stable connections of tubing to flow cells, and elimination of bubbles by placing switching valves between the syringes and tubing. The protocol describes dual optical traps that enable visualization of DNA transactions and intermolecular interactions.

Visual biochemistry is a powerful technique for observing the stochastic properties of single enzymes or enzyme complexes that are obscured in the ...

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2.0K Views.  University of Nebraska Medical Center. Visual, single-molecule biochemistry studied through microfluidic chambers is greatly facilitated using glass barrel, gas-tight syringes, stable connections of tubing to flow cells, and elimination of bubbles by placing switching valves between the syringes and tubing. The protocol describes dual optical traps that enable visualization of DNA transactions and intermolecular interactions.

Video: Use of Dual Optical Tweezers and Microfluidics for Single-Molecule Studies

High Precision FRET at Single-molecule Level for Biomolecule Structure Determination

A protocol on how to perform high-precision interdye distance measurements using F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET) at the single-molecule level in multiparameter fluorescence detection (MFD) mode is presented here. MFD maximizes the usage of all &#34;dimensions&#34; of fluorescence to reduce photophysical and experimental artifacts and allows for the measurement of interdye distance with an accuracy up to ~1 &#197; in rigid biomolecules. This method was used to identify three conformational states of the ligand-binding domain of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor to explain the activation of the receptor upon ligand binding. When comparing the known crystallographic structures with experimental measurements, they agreed within less than 3 &#197; for more dynamic biomolecules. Gathering a set of distance restraints that covers the entire dimensionality of the biomolecules would make it possible to provide a structural model of dynamic biomolecules.

A protocol for high-precision FRET experiments at the single molecule level is presented here. Additionally, this methodology can be used to identify three conformational states in the ligand-binding domain of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor. Determining precise distances is the first step towards building structural models based on FRET experiments.

A protocol on how to perform high-precision interdye distance measurements using F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET) at the single-molecule ...

Single-molecule Manipulation of G-quadruplexes by Magnetic Tweezers

Non-canonical nucleic acid secondary structure G-quadruplexes (G4) are involved in diverse cellular processes, such as DNA replication, transcription, RNA processing, and telomere elongation. During these processes, various proteins bind and resolve G4 structures to perform their function. As the function of G4 often depends on the stability of its folded structure, it is important to investigate how G4 binding proteins regulate the stability of G4. This work presents a method to manipulate single G4 molecules using magnetic tweezers, which enables studies of the regulation of G4 binding proteins on a single G4 molecule in real time. In general, this method is suitable for a wide scope of applications in studies for proteins/ligands interactions and regulations on various DNA or RNA secondary structures.

A single-molecule magnetic tweezers platform to manipulate G-quadruplexes is reported, which allows for the study of G4 stability and regulation by various proteins.

Non-canonical nucleic acid secondary structure G-quadruplexes (G4) are involved in diverse cellular processes, such as DNA replication, transcription, RNA ...

Covalent Immobilization of Proteins for the Single Molecule Force Spectroscopy

In recent years, atomic force microscopy (AFM) based single molecule force spectroscopy (SMFS) extended our understanding of molecular properties and functions. It gave us the opportunity to explore a multiplicity of biophysical mechanisms, e.g., how bacterial adhesins bind to host surface receptors in more detail. Among other factors, the success of SMFS experiments depends on the functional and native immobilization of the biomolecules of interest on solid surfaces and AFM tips. Here, we describe a straightforward protocol for the covalent coupling of proteins to silicon surfaces using silane-PEG-carboxyls and the well-established N-hydroxysuccinimid/1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethyl-aminopropyl)carbodiimid (EDC/NHS) chemistry in order to explore the interaction of pilus-1 adhesin RrgA from the Gram-positive bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae (S. pneumoniae) with the extracellular matrix protein fibronectin (Fn). Our results show that the surface functionalization leads to a homogenous distribution of Fn on the glass surface and to an appropriate concentration of RrgA on the AFM cantilever tip, apparent by the target value of up to 20% of interaction events during SMFS measurements and revealed that RrgA binds to Fn with a mean force of 52 pN. The protocol can be adjusted to couple via site specific free thiol groups. This results in a predefined protein or molecule orientation and is suitable for other biophysical applications besides the SMFS.

This protocol describes the covalent immobilization of proteins with a heterobifunctional silane coupling agent to silicon-oxide surfaces designed for the atomic force microscopy based single molecule force spectroscopy which is exemplified by the interaction of RrgA (pilus-1 tip adhesin of S. pneumoniae) with fibronectin.

In recent years, atomic force microscopy (AFM) based single molecule force spectroscopy (SMFS) extended our understanding of molecular properties and ...

Proteome-wide Quantification of Labeling Homogeneity at the Single Molecule Level

Cell proteomes are often characterized using electrophoresis assays, where all species of proteins in the cells are non-specifically labeled with a fluorescent dye and are spotted by a photodetector following their separation. Single molecule fluorescence imaging can provide ultrasensitive protein detection with its ability for visualizing individual fluorescent molecules. However, the application of this powerful imaging method to electrophoresis assays is hampered by the lack of ways to characterize the homogeneity of fluorescent labeling of each protein species across the proteome. Here, we developed a method to evaluate the labeling homogeneity across the proteome based on a single molecule fluorescence imaging assay. In our measurement using a HeLa cell sample, the proportion of proteins labeled with at least one dye, which we termed &#8216;labeling occupancy&#8217; (LO), was determined to range from 50% to 90%, supporting the high potential of the application of single molecule imaging to sensitive and precise proteome analysis.

Here, we present a protocol to assess the labeling homogeneity for each protein species in a complex protein sample at the single molecule level.

Cell proteomes are often characterized using electrophoresis assays, where all species of proteins in the cells are non-specifically labeled with a ...

Single Cell Analysis Of Transcriptionally Active Alleles By Single Molecule FISH

Gene transcription is an essential process in cell biology, and allows cells to interpret and respond to internal and external cues. Traditional bulk population methods (Northern blot, PCR, and RNAseq) that measure mRNA levels lack the ability to provide information on cell-to-cell variation in responses. Precise single cell and allelic visualization and quantification is possible via single molecule RNA fluorescence in situ hybridization (smFISH). RNA-FISH is performed by hybridizing target RNAs with labeled oligonucleotide probes. These can be imaged in medium/high throughput modalities, and, through image analysis pipelines, provide quantitative data on both mature and nascent RNAs, all at the single cell level. The fixation, permeabilization, hybridization and imaging steps have been optimized in the lab over many years using the model system described herein, which results in successful and robust single cell analysis of smFISH labeling. The main goal with sample preparation and processing is to produce high quality images characterized by a high signal-to-noise ratio to reduce false positives and provide data that are more accurate. Here, we present a protocol describing the pipeline from sample preparation to data analysis in conjunction with suggestions and optimization steps to tailor to specific samples.&#160;

Single molecule RNA fluorescence in situ hybridization (smFISH) is a method to accurately quantify levels and localization of specific RNAs at the single cell level. Here, we report our validated lab protocols for wet-bench processing, imaging and image analysis for single cell quantification of specific RNAs.

Gene transcription is an essential process in cell biology, and allows cells to interpret and respond to internal and external cues. Traditional bulk ...

Optical Tweezers to Study RNA-Protein Interactions in Translation Regulation

RNA adopts diverse structural folds, which are essential for its functions and thereby can impact diverse processes in the cell. In addition, the structure and function of an RNA can be modulated by various trans-acting factors, such as proteins, metabolites or other RNAs. Frameshifting RNA molecules, for instance, are regulatory RNAs located in coding regions, which direct translating ribosomes into an alternative open reading frame, and thereby act as gene switches. They may also adopt different folds after binding to proteins or other trans-factors. To dissect the role of RNA-binding proteins in translation and how they modulate RNA structure and stability, it is crucial to study the interplay and mechanical features of these RNA-protein complexes simultaneously.&#160;This work illustrates how to employ single-molecule-fluorescence-coupled optical tweezers to explore the conformational and thermodynamic landscape of RNA-protein complexes at a high resolution. As an example, the interaction of the SARS-CoV-2 programmed ribosomal frameshifting element with the trans-acting factor short isoform of zinc-finger antiviral protein is elaborated. In addition, fluorescence-labeled ribosomes were monitored using the confocal unit, which would ultimately enable the study of translation elongation. The fluorescence coupled OT assay can be widely applied to explore diverse RNA-protein complexes or trans-acting factors regulating translation and could facilitate studies of RNA-based gene regulation.

This protocol presents a complete experimental workflow for studying RNA-protein interactions using optical tweezers. Several possible experimental setups are outlined including the combination of optical tweezers with confocal microscopy.

RNA adopts diverse structural folds, which are essential for its functions and thereby can impact diverse processes in the cell. In addition, the ...

Single-Molecule Imaging of EWS-FLI1 Condensates Assembling on DNA

The fusion genes resulting from chromosomal translocation have been found in many solid tumors or leukemia. EWS-FLI1, which belongs to the FUS/EWS/TAF15 (FET) family of fusion oncoproteins, is one of the most frequently involved fusion genes in Ewing sarcoma. These FET family fusion proteins typically harbor a low-complexity domain (LCD) of FET protein at their N-terminus and a DNA-binding domain (DBD) at their C-terminus. EWS-FLI1 has been confirmed to form biomolecular condensates at its target binding loci due to LCD-LCD and LCD-DBD interactions, and these condensates can recruit RNA polymerase II to enhance gene transcription. However, how these condensates are assembled at their binding sites remains unclear. Recently, a single-molecule biophysics method-DNA Curtains-was applied to visualize these assembling processes of EWS-FLI1 condensates. Here, the detailed experimental protocol and data analysis approaches are discussed for the application of DNA Curtains in studying the biomolecular condensates assembling on target DNA.

Here, we describe the use of the single-molecule imaging method, DNA Curtains, to study the biophysical mechanism of EWS-FLI1 condensates assembling on DNA.

The fusion genes resulting from chromosomal translocation have been found in many solid tumors or leukemia. EWS-FLI1, which belongs to the FUS/EWS/TAF15 ...

Single-Molecule Diffusion and Assembly on Polymer-Crowded Lipid Membranes

Cellular membranes are highly crowded environments for biomolecular reactions and signaling. Yet, most in vitro experiments probing protein interaction with lipids employ naked bilayer membranes. Such systems lack the complexities of crowding by membrane-embedded proteins and glycans and exclude the associated volume effects encountered on cellular membrane surfaces. Also, the negatively charged glass surface onto which the lipid bilayers are formed prevents the free diffusion of transmembrane biomolecules. Here, we present a well-characterized polymer-lipid membrane as a mimic for crowded lipid membranes. This protocol utilizes polyethylene glycol (PEG)-conjugated lipids as a generalized approach for incorporating crowders into the supported lipid bilayer&#160;(SLB). First, a cleaning procedure of the microscopic slides and coverslips for performing single-molecule experiments is presented. Next, methods for characterizing the PEG-SLBs and performing single-molecule experiments of the binding, diffusion, and assembly of biomolecules using single-molecule tracking and photobleaching are discussed. Finally, this protocol demonstrates how to monitor the nanopore assembly of bacterial pore-forming toxin Cytolysin A (ClyA) on crowded lipid membranes with single-molecule photobleaching analysis. MATLAB codes with example datasets are also included to perform some of the common analyses such as particle tracking, extracting diffusive behavior, and subunit counting.

Here, a protocol to perform and analyze the binding, mobility, and assembly of single molecules on artificial crowded lipid membranes using single-molecule total internal reflection fluorescence (smTIRF) microscopy is presented.

Cellular membranes are highly crowded environments for biomolecular reactions and signaling. Yet, most in vitro experiments probing protein interaction ...

Imaging the Motion of Fully Reconstituted Cdc45/Mcm2-7/GINS (CMG)

Hybrid Ensemble and Single-molecule Assay to Image the Motion of Fully Reconstituted CMG

Eukaryotes have one replicative helicase known as CMG, which centrally organizes and drives the replisome, and leads the way at the front of replication forks. Obtaining a deep mechanistic understanding of the dynamics of CMG is critical to elucidating how cells achieve the enormous task of efficiently and accurately replicating their entire genome once per cell cycle. Single-molecule techniques are uniquely suited to quantify the dynamics of CMG due to their unparalleled temporal and spatial resolution. Nevertheless, single-molecule studies of CMG motion have thus far relied on pre-formed CMG purified from cells as a complex, which precludes the study of the steps leading up to its activation. Here, we describe a hybrid ensemble and single-molecule assay that allowed imaging at the single-molecule level of the motion of fluorescently labeled CMG after fully reconstituting its assembly and activation from 36 different purified S. cerevisiae polypeptides. This assay relies on the double functionalization of the ends of a linear DNA substrate with two orthogonal attachment moieties, and can be adapted to study similarly complex DNA-processing mechanisms at the single-molecule level.

Author Spotlight: Investigating the Motion Dynamics of the Eukaryotic Replisome Components at the Single-Molecule Level

We report a hybrid ensemble and single-molecule assay to directly image and quantify the motion of fluorescently labeled, fully reconstituted Cdc45/Mcm2-7/GINS (CMG) helicase on linear DNA molecules held in place in an optical trap.

Eukaryotes have one replicative helicase known as CMG, which centrally organizes and drives the replisome, and leads the way at the front of replication ...

Studying TRF1/2 Interactions with Telomeric DNA Using Single-Molecule Assay

Analyzing Telomeric Protein-DNA Interactions Using Single-Molecule Magnetic Tweezers

Telomeres, the protective structures at the ends of chromosomes, are crucial for maintaining cellular longevity and genome stability. Their proper function depends on tightly regulated processes of replication, elongation, and damage response. The shelterin complex, especially Telomere Repeat-binding Factor 1 (TRF1) and TRF2, plays a pivotal role in telomere protection and has emerged as a potential anti-cancer target for drug discovery. These proteins bind to the repetitive telomeric DNA motif TTAGGG, facilitating the formation of protective structures and recruitment of other telomeric proteins. Structural methods and advanced imaging techniques have provided insights into telomeric protein-DNA interactions, but probing the dynamic processes requires single-molecule approaches. Tools like magnetic tweezers, optical tweezers, and atomic force microscopy (AFM) have been employed to study telomeric protein-DNA interactions, revealing important details such as TRF2-dependent DNA distortion and telomerase catalysis. However, the preparation of single-molecule constructs with telomeric repetitive motifs continues to be a challenging task, potentially limiting the breadth of studies utilizing single-molecule mechanical methods. To address this, we developed a method to study interactions using full-length human telomeric DNA with magnetic tweezers. This protocol describes how to express and purify TRF2, prepare telomeric DNA, set up single-molecule mechanical assays, and analyze data. This detailed guide will benefit researchers in telomere biology and telomere-targeted drug discovery.

Author Spotlight: Advanced Single-Molecule Techniques for Investigating Telomeric Protein-DNA Interactions

This protocol demonstrates using single-molecule magnetic tweezers to study interactions between telomeric DNA-binding proteins (Telomere Repeat-binding Factor 1 [TRF1] and TRF2) and long telomeres extracted from human cells. It describes the preparatory steps for telomeres and telomeric repeat-binding factors, the execution of single-molecule experiments, and the data collection and analysis methods.