Research support was provided by a UCR Graduate Division Fellowship to SAB, a NRSA T32 Training Program Fellowship (T32ES018827) to SAB, and a National Institutes of Health grant (R01ES027576) and USDA National Institute of Food and Agriculture Hatch Project (1009609) to DCV.

Adult breeders were handled and treated in accordance with an Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)-approved animal use protocol (#20180063) at the University of California, Riverside.
1. Zebrafish embryo collection and chemical exposure
<ol>
	<li>Add in-tank breeding traps to tanks containing sexually mature and reproductively viable adult male and female zebrafish. Add at least three traps per 6 L tank at least 12 h prior to collection at ~9:00 AM, which is t...

<ol>
	<li>Zhang, H. -. Y., Xiong, J., Qi, B. -. L., Feng, Y. -. Q., Yuan, B. -. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+existence+of+5-hydroxymethylcytosine+and+5-formylcytosine+in+both+DNA+and+RNA+in+mammals.">The existence of 5-hydroxymethylcytosine and 5-formylcytosine in both DNA and RNA in mammals.</a> Chemical Communications. 52 (4), 737-740 (2016).</li><li>Huang, W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Formation+and+determination+of+the+oxidation+products+of+5-methylcytosine+in+RNA.">Formation and determination of the oxidation products of 5-methylcytosine in RNA.</a> Chemical Science. 7 (8), 5495-5502 (2016).</li><li>Avila-Barnard, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl)+phosphate+disrupts+the+trajectory+of+cytosine+methylation+within+developing+zebrafish+embryos.">Tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate disrupts the trajectory of cytosine methylation within developing zebrafish embryos.</a> Environmental Research. 211, 113078 (2022).</li><li>Dasgupta, S., Cheng, V., Volz, D. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Utilizing+zebrafish+embryos+to+reveal+disruptions+in+dorsoventral+patterning.">Utilizing zebrafish embryos to reveal disruptions in dorsoventral patterning.</a> Current Protocols. 1 (6), 179 (2021).</li><li>Vliet, S. M. F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Maternal-to-zygotic+transition+as+a+potential+target+for+niclosamide+during+early+embryogenesis.">Maternal-to-zygotic transition as a potential target for niclosamide during early embryogenesis.</a> Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology. 380, 114699 (2019).</li><li>Kupsco, A., Dasgupta, S., Nguyen, C., Volz, D. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dynamic+alterations+in+DNA+methylation+precede+Tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl)phosphate-induced+delays+in+zebrafish+epiboly.">Dynamic alterations in DNA methylation precede Tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl)phosphate-induced delays in zebrafish epiboly.</a> Environmental Science &amp; Technology Letters. 4 (9), 367-373 (2017).</li><li>Dasgupta, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Complex+interplay+among+nuclear+receptor+ligands,+cytosine+methylation,+and+the+metabolome+in+driving+tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl)phosphate-induced+epiboly+defects+in+zebrafish.">Complex interplay among nuclear receptor ligands, cytosine methylation, and the metabolome in driving tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl)phosphate-induced epiboly defects in zebrafish.</a> Environmental Science &amp; Technology. 53 (17), 10497-10505 (2019).</li><li>McGee, S. P., Cooper, E. M., Stapleton, H. M., Volz, D. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Early+zebrafish+embryogenesis+is+susceptible+to+developmental+TDCPP+exposure.">Early zebrafish embryogenesis is susceptible to developmental TDCPP exposure.</a> Environmental Health Perspectives. 120 (11), 1585-1591 (2012).</li><li>Geiman, T. M., Muegge, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=DNA+methylation+in+early+development.">DNA methylation in early development.</a> Molecular Reproduction and Development. 77 (2), 105-113 (2010).</li><li>Wossidlo, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=5-Hydroxymethylcytosine+in+the+mammalian+zygote+is+linked+with+epigenetic+reprogramming.">5-Hydroxymethylcytosine in the mammalian zygote is linked with epigenetic reprogramming.</a> Nature Communications. 2 (1), 1-8 (2011).</li><li>Rottach, A., Leonhardt, H., Spada, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=DNA+methylation-mediated+epigenetic+control.">DNA methylation-mediated epigenetic control.</a> Journal of Cellular Biochemistry. 108 (1), 43-51 (2009).</li><li>Egger, G., Liang, G., Aparicio, A., Jones, P. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Epigenetics+in+human+disease+and+prospects+for+epigenetic+therapy.">Epigenetics in human disease and prospects for epigenetic therapy.</a> Nature. 429 (6990), 457-463 (2004).</li><li>Ooi, S. K. T., O'Donnell, A. H., Bestor, T. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mammalian+cytosine+methylation+at+a+glance.">Mammalian cytosine methylation at a glance.</a> Journal of Cell Science. 122 (16), 2787-2791 (2009).</li><li>Baylin, S. B., Jones, P. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+decade+of+exploring+the+cancer+epigenome-biological+and+translational+implications.">A decade of exploring the cancer epigenome-biological and translational implications.</a> Nature Reviews Cancer. 11 (10), 726-734 (2011).</li><li>Robertson, K. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=DNA+methylation+and+chromatin-unraveling+the+tangled+web.">DNA methylation and chromatin-unraveling the tangled web.</a> Oncogene. 21 (35), 5361-5379 (2002).</li><li>Robertson, K. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=DNA+methylation+and+human+disease.">DNA methylation and human disease.</a> Nature Reviews Genetics. 6 (8), 597-610 (2005).</li><li>Greenberg, M. V. C., Bourc'his, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+diverse+roles+of+DNA+methylation+in+mammalian+development+and+disease.">The diverse roles of DNA methylation in mammalian development and disease.</a> Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology. 20 (10), 590-607 (2019).</li><li>Yuan, B. -. F., Feng, Y. -. Q. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Recent+advances+in+the+analysis+of+5-methylcytosine+and+its+oxidation+products.">Recent advances in the analysis of 5-methylcytosine and its oxidation products.</a> Trends in Analytical Chemistry. 54, 24-35 (2014).</li><li>Lantz-McPeak, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Developmental+toxicity+assay+using+high+content+screening+of+zebrafish+embryos.">Developmental toxicity assay using high content screening of zebrafish embryos.</a> Journal of Applied Toxicology. 35 (3), 261-272 (2015).</li></ol>

During this protocol, there are a few steps that are critical. First, when dechorionating embryos, it is important to point the needle away from the tissue of the embryo/yolk sac/cell mass, as these portions of the developing embryo are very fragile and easy to puncture. Second, when transferring labeled embryos to individual wells, use a glass pipette to transfer embryos as they will adhere to a plastic pipette. Third, when performing whole-mount IHC, ensure that the plate is protected from light. Finally, after complet...

Enzymatic modifications drive active methylation and demethylation of cytosine into 5-methylcytosine (5-mC) and subsequent oxidation of 5-mC into 5-hydroxymethylcytosine, 5-formylcytosine, and 5-carboxylcytosine1,2. Tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TDCIPP) is a widely used flame retardant in the United States that has been previously demonstrated to alter the trajectory of cytosine methylation following early embryonic exposure from 0.75 hours post-fertilization (hpf) through early gastrulation (6 hpf)3,4,5,6,7,8. Within vertebrates, 5-mC and its modified derivatives are critical for regulating early embryonic development9. Fertilization of an embryo triggers demethylation of parental DNA, followed by maternal mRNA degradation, zygotic genome activation, and remethylation of the zygotic genome9. Biologically relevant processes that utilize cytosine methylation include histone modification, recruitment of transcriptional machinery, RNA methylation, epigenetic reprogramming, and determination of chromatin structure10,11. Cytosine methylation is also conserved among vertebrate species, underscoring the importance of understanding and investigating how aberrant cytosine methylation may affect the trajectory of an organism&#39;s development11. Furthermore, in utero development is sensitive to maternal exposure and has the potential to cause adverse outcomes such as immediate phenotypic consequences, long-term effects on adult disease susceptibility, and transgenerational effects of inherited epigenetic marks12,13,14.
Long stretches of cytosine-guanine pairs, or CpG islands, have been the primary foci of investigators that aim to characterize the dynamics of cytosine methylation across the genome15,16,17. Bisulfite-based strategies such as whole-genome bisulfite sequencing, reduced representation bisulfite sequencing, and bisulfite amplicon sequencing represent the gold standard for interrogating cytosine methylation at base-pair resolution. However, sequencing-based approaches are cost-prohibitive and, as such, preclude the ability to monitor cytosine methylation across developmental stages, multiple concentrations per chemical, and replicate embryos per treatment. In addition, sequencing-based approaches do not provide information about spatial localization, which is critical for understanding potentially affected cell types and areas within a developing embryo. Similarly, global DNA methylation assays such as methylation-dependent restriction analysis, 5-mC enzyme-linked immunoassays (ELISAs), and 5-methyl-2&#39;-deoxycytidine (5-mC) liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) rely on cell or tissue homogenates and, as such, preclude the ability to monitor the localization and magnitude of cytosine methylation over space and time within intact specimens12,18.
Due to the ease of automated in vivo imaging, genetic manipulations, rapid ex utero development time, and husbandry during embryogenesis, zebrafish embryos continue to be widely used as physiologically intact models to uncover xenobiotic-mediated pathways that contribute to adverse outcomes during early embryonic development. Therefore, using commercially available antibodies specific to 5-mC, the protocol below describes a cost-effective strategy for rapid and efficient spatiotemporal monitoring of cytosine methylation within individual, intact zebrafish embryos by leveraging whole-mount immunohistochemistry (IHC), automated high-content imaging, and efficient data processing using programming language prior to statistical analysis.
To current knowledge, this method is the first to monitor 5-mC within intact zebrafish embryos. The method enables the detection of DNA methylation within the cell mass and also has the ability to detect cytosine methylation of yolk-localized maternal mRNAs during the maternal-to-zygotic transition. Overall, this method will be useful for the rapid identification of chemicals that have the potential to disrupt cytosine methylation in situ during epigenetic reprogramming.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>1.5-mL microcentrifuge tubes</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>540225</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>10-&#181;L glass microcapillary pipette</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>211762B</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>100-mm plastic Petri dish</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>08757100D</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>10x phosphate-buffered saline&#160;</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>BP399500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1-mL pipette&#160;</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>13690032</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>250-mL Erlenmeyer flask</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>FB501250</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>5-mL pipette</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>13690033</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>60-mm glass petri dishes with lids</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>08747A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>96-well plate</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>720089</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>AlexaFluor 488-conjugated goat anti-mouse IgG antibody&#160;</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>A21121</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bovine serum albumin</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>BP67110</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DMSO</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>BP2311</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hotplate&#160;</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>1110016SH</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>In-tank breeding traps</td>
			<td>Aquatic Habitats</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>This product is no longer available following acquisition of Aquatic Habitats by Pentair.&#160; Investigators can use standard off-system breeding tanks available from multiple vendors.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ImageXpress Micro XLS Widefield High-Content Screening System</td>
			<td>Molecular Devices</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Any high-content screening system equipped with transmitted light and FITC filter will be suitable.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Immunochemistry (IHC) basket</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Manufactured in-house using microcentrifuge tubes with conical portion removed and bottom fitted with mesh, sized for 24- or 48-well plates.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MetaXpress 6.0.3.1658&#160;</td>
			<td>Molecular Devices</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Any software capable of quantifying total area and integrated intensity of fluorescence will be suitable.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microspatula</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>2140115</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Monoclonal mouse anti-5-mC antibody</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>MABE146</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaOH</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>BP359-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Orbital shaker&#160;</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>50998290</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Parafilm&#160;</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>1337412</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Paraformaldehyde&#160;</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>18612139</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plastic transfer pipette</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>1368050</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rstudio</td>
			<td>RStudio</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>RStudio is open-source software and can be downloaded at https://www.rstudio.com.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sheep serum</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>S3772-5ML</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stereomicroscope</td>
			<td>Leica</td>
			<td>10450103</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Temperature-controlled incubator&#160;</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>PR505755L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tween-20&#160;</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>P7949-500ML</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

rapid and efficient spatiotemporal monitoring of normal and aberrant cytosine methylation within intact zebrafish embryos

Cytosine methylation is highly conserved across vertebrate species and, as a key driver of epigenetic programming and chromatin state, plays a critical role in early embryonic development. Enzymatic modifications drive active methylation and demethylation of cytosine into 5-methylcytosine (5-mC) and subsequent oxidation of 5-mC into 5-hydroxymethylcytosine, 5-formylcytosine, and 5-carboxylcytosine. Epigenetic reprogramming is a critical period during in utero development, and maternal exposure to chemicals has the potential to reprogram the epigenome within offspring. This can potentially cause adverse outcomes such as immediate phenotypic consequences, long-term effects on adult disease susceptibility, and transgenerational effects of inherited epigenetic marks. Although bisulfite-based sequencing enables investigators to interrogate cytosine methylation at base-pair resolution, sequencing-based approaches are cost-prohibitive and, as such, preclude the ability to monitor cytosine methylation across developmental stages, multiple concentrations per chemical, and replicate embryos per treatment. Due to the ease of automated in vivo imaging, genetic manipulations, rapid ex utero development time, and husbandry during embryogenesis, zebrafish embryos continue to be used as a physiologically intact model for uncovering xenobiotic-mediated pathways that contribute to adverse outcomes during early embryonic development. Therefore, using commercially available 5-mC-specific antibodies, we describe a cost-effective strategy for rapid and efficient spatiotemporal monitoring of cytosine methylation within individual, intact zebrafish embryos by leveraging whole-mount immunohistochemistry, automated high-content imaging, and efficient data processing using programming language prior to statistical analysis. To current knowledge, this method is the first to successfully detect and quantify 5-mC levels in situ within zebrafish embryos during early development. The method enables the detection of DNA methylation within the cell mass and also has the ability to detect cytosine methylation of yolk-localized maternal mRNAs during the maternal-to-zygotic transition. Overall, this method will be useful for the rapid identification of chemicals that have the potential to disrupt cytosine methylation in situ during epigenetic reprogramming.

The overall aim of this protocol is to determine whether a treatment affects the relative abundance of 5-mC by assessing the total area and relative intensity of fluorescence within fixed and labeled zebrafish embryos. After completing the protocol, a fluorescence stereomicroscope can be used to first determine whether the whole-mount IHC was successful. When labeled embryos are observed under a FITC or GFP filter, a positive result is indicated by a positive FITC signal within the embryo, whereas a negative result is in...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Rapid and Efficient Spatiotemporal Monitoring of Normal and Aberrant Cytosine Methylation within Intact Zebrafish Embryos at JoVE.com

Rapid and Efficient Spatiotemporal Monitoring of Normal and Aberrant Cytosine Methylation within Intact Zebrafish Embryos

This paper describes a protocol for the rapid and efficient spatiotemporal monitoring of normal and aberrant cytosine methylation within intact zebrafish embryos.

Cytosine methylation is highly conserved across vertebrate species and, as a key driver of epigenetic programming and chromatin state, plays a critical ...

This protocol offers a relatively rapid and cost efficient method, as well as an automated acquisition and analysis thus producing low sensitivity screening of 5-Methylcytosine which is a common epigenetic biomarker. The main advantage of this technique is in the flexibility it offers an experimental design that users can optimize to their model and stage of development. This technique can be used to detect how chemical exposure alters the relative abundance of 5-Methylcytosine within a developing organism which normally could only be done through expensive high trpA methods such as sequencing.This method is useful to any research which aims to utilize NCG methods to understand epigenetic alterations of 5-Methylcytosine in response to environmental stimuli. Begin by preparing a fresh exposure solution on the morning of collection. Add five milliliters of particulate free system water to a 60 millimeter glass Petri dish.Then use a 10 microliter micro capillary glass pipette to transfer 10 microliters of dimethyl sulfoxide or chemical stock solution to system water. Swirl the glass Petri dish to ensure the stock solution dissipates. Add another five milliliters of system water to the glass Petri dish and swirl the dish to homogenize the exposure solution.Cap the glass dishes with glass lids to minimize evaporation. Next, use an RO water-filled squirt bottle to transfer the embryos from the fish net into a 100 millimeter dish. Randomly sort 50 live embryos at 0.75 hours post fertilization and remove excess RO water.After the exposure duration has ended, remove the embryos from the incubator. Transfer all living embryos to a 1.5 milliliter micro centrifuge tube. Aspirate residual exposure solution without aspirating any embryos.Add 500 microliters of chilled 4%paraformaldehyde and mix the embryos by inversion several times. Allow the embryos to fix and 4%paraformaldehyde overnight at four degrees celsius. After fixing the embryos aspirate the 4%paraformaldehyde, respend the embryos in 1X PBS, and mix by gentle pipetting for 30 seconds.Using a glass pipette, carefully transfer fixed embryos to an RO water-filled glass dish. Gently swirl for 30 seconds and repeat this wash once. Under a stereo microscope set at five times magnification decorenate the embryos using syringe needles.Using the needle tip, puncture the chorion and gently peel it away from the yolk and cell mass. After the embryos have been decorenated, use a glass micro capillary pipette to transfer up to 25 intact embryos into one immunohistochemistry basket. Place the IHC basket into a 24 well plate.Then aspirate the water from each well. Resuspend the embryos in 500 microliters of blocking buffer per well, wrap the plate with paraform and aluminum foil to protect it from light. Incubate the plate at four degrees Celsius for four hours on an orbital shaker at 100 rpm.After incubation, aspirate the blocking buffer from each well. Replace it with 500 microliters of primary antibody solution. Remember to incubate a subset of vehicle control embryos with the blocking buffer to account for background noise.Rewrap the plate and paraform and aluminum foil and allow the plate to incubate at four degree Celsius overnight on an orbital shaker. The following day remove the primary antibody solution from each well and replace it with 1x PBST. Wash each well thrice with 1x PBST for five minutes per wash on an orbital shaker.Aspirate 1x PBST from each well and place the IHC basket into a glass Petri dish filled with RO water. Under a standard stereo microscope randomly sort intact embryos into a 96 well plate ensuring one embryo per well. Then remove all RO water from individual wells and add 200 microliters of 1x PBS.Centrifuge the plate for three minutes at one G.Image the embryos with a two times objective under transmitted light and FITC. Select autofocus to ensure the focus of the camera is on the bottom of the plate and offset by the bottom thickness. Select a FITC wavelength with an exposure duration of 100 milliseconds and set the auto focus to laser with a Z offset.Observe and confirm proper image acquisition and several wells prior to commencing plate acquisition. After image acquisition, carry out data analysis using the high content screening system and a custom automated image analysis procedure. Select each embryo on the 96 well plate to be analyzed for total area and integrated intensity of fluorescence.Then tabulate the data points and export them from the high content screening system by going to measure and selecting open data log to export the data to a spreadsheet. Upload the exported spreadsheet to the deployer package to sort and summate data for each well and filter by well number. Then use the right Excel package to export the summated data into a spreadsheet.The distribution and integrated intensity of 5-Methylcytosine specific total area were assessed for Zebrafish embryos at six hours post fertilization. The x-axis shows exposure to either DMSO as a vehicle or TDCIPP as the positive control. The Y-axis denotes relative fluorescence.The thresholds were significantly different from the vehicle treated embryos as shown by the total area of 5-Methylcytosine detected within embryos and the integrated intensity within that same area indicating maximum signal to noise ratio. It is extremely important to maintain the integrity of the yoke and cell mass for proper IHC detection. This method is relatively insensitive and only offers relative abundance RFU data.If quantification is required one can follow up with a more targeted approach.

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Research

JoVE Journal

Developmental Biology

Isolation and Characterization of Single Cells from Zebrafish Embryos

The zebrafish (Danio rerio) is a powerful model organism to study vertebrate development. Though many aspects of zebrafish embryonic development have been described at the morphological level, little is known about the molecular basis of cellular changes that occur as the organism develops. With recent advancements in microfluidics and multiplexing technologies, it is now possible to characterize gene expression in single cells. This allows for investigation of heterogeneity between individual cells of specific cell populations to identify and classify cell subtypes, characterize intermediate states that occur during cell differentiation, and explore differential cellular responses to stimuli. This study describes a protocol to isolate viable, single cells from zebrafish embryos for high throughput multiplexing assays. This method may be rapidly applied to any zebrafish embryonic cell type with fluorescent markers. An extension of this method may also be used in combination with high throughput sequencing technologies to fully characterize the transcriptome of single cells. As proof of principle, the relative abundance of cardiac differentiation markers was assessed in isolated, single cells derived from nkx2.5 positive cardiac progenitors. By evaluation of gene expression at the single cell level and at a single time point, the data support a model in which cardiac progenitors coexist with differentiating progeny. The method and work flow described here is broadly applicable to the zebrafish research community, requiring only a labeled transgenic fish line and access to microfluidics technologies.

This protocol describes a method for isolating single cells from zebrafish embryos, enriching for cells of interest, capturing zebrafish cells in microfluidic based single cell multiplex systems, and assessing gene expression from single cells.

The zebrafish (Danio rerio) is a powerful model organism to study vertebrate development. Though many aspects of zebrafish embryonic development have been ...

Generation of Parabiotic Zebrafish Embryos by Surgical Fusion of Developing Blastulae

Surgical parabiosis of two animals of different genetic backgrounds creates a unique scenario to study cell-intrinsic versus cell-extrinsic roles for candidate genes of interest, migratory behaviors of cells, and secreted signals in distinct genetic settings. Because parabiotic animals share a common circulation, any blood or blood-borne factor from one animal will be exchanged with its partner and vice versa. Thus, cells and molecular factors derived from one genetic background can be studied in the context of a second genetic background. Parabiosis of adult mice has been &#160;used extensively to research aging, cancer, diabetes, obesity, and brain development. More recently, parabiosis of zebrafish embryos has been used to study the developmental biology of hematopoiesis. In contrast to mice, the transparent nature of zebrafish embryos permits the direct visualization of cells in the parabiotic context, making it a uniquely powerful method for investigating fundamental cellular and molecular mechanisms. The utility of this technique, however, is limited by a steep learning curve for generating the parabiotic zebrafish embryos. This protocol provides a step-by-step method on how to surgically fuse the blastulae of two zebrafish embryos of different genetic backgrounds to investigate the role of candidate genes of interest. In addition, the parabiotic zebrafish embryos are tolerant to heat shock, making temporal control of gene expression possible. This method does not require a sophisticated set-up and has broad applications for studying cell migration, fate specification, and differentiation in vivo during embryonic development.

This protocol provides step-by-step instruction on how to generate parabiotic zebrafish embryos of different genetic backgrounds. When combined with the unparalleled imaging capabilities of the zebrafish embryo, this method provides a uniquely powerful means to investigate cell-autonomous versus non-cell-autonomous functions for candidate genes of interest.

Surgical parabiosis of two animals of different genetic backgrounds creates a unique scenario to study cell-intrinsic versus cell-extrinsic roles for ...

Affinity Labeling Detection of Endogenous Receptors from Zebrafish Embryos

By combining the powers of Affinity Labeling and Immunoprecipitation (AFLIP), a technique for the detection of low abundance receptors in zebrafish embryos has been implemented. This technique takes advantage of the selectivity and sensitivity conferred by affinity labeling of a given receptor by its ligand with the specificity of the immunoprecipitation. We have used AFLIP to detect the type III TGF-&#946; receptor (TGFBR3), also know as betaglycan, during early zebrafish development. AFLIP was instrumental in validating the efficacy of a TGFBR3 morphant zebrafish phenotype. In the first step, embryo protein extracts are prepared and used to generate 125I-TGF-&#946;2-TGFBR3 complexes that are purified by immunoprecipitation. Later, these complexes are covalently cross-linked and revealed using SDS-PAGE separation and autoradiography detection. This technique requires the availability of a labeled ligand for, and a specific antibody against, the receptor to be detected, and shall be easily adapted to identify any growth factor or cytokine receptor that meets these requirements.

A novel technique for the detection of low abundance endogenous receptors present in zebrafish embryos is described. We have named it AFLIP because it consists of affinity labeling of the receptor by its ligand linked to immunoprecipitation.

By combining the powers of Affinity Labeling and Immunoprecipitation (AFLIP), a technique for the detection of low abundance receptors in zebrafish ...

Biosensing Motor Neuron Membrane Potential in Live Zebrafish Embryos

The protocols described here are designed to allow researchers to study cell communication without altering the integrity of the environment in which the cells are located. Specifically, they have been developed to analyze the electrical activity of excitable cells, such as spinal neurons. In such a scenario, it is crucial to preserve the integrity of the spinal cell, but it is also important to preserve the anatomy and physiological shape of the systems involved. Indeed, the comprehension of the manner in which the nervous system-and other complex systems-works must be based on a systemic approach. For this reason, the live zebrafish embryo was chosen as a model system, and the spinal neuron membrane voltage changes were evaluated without interfering with the physiological conditions of the embryos. 
Here, an approach combining the employment of zebrafish embryos with a FRET-based biosensor is described. Zebrafish embryos are characterized by a very simplified nervous system and are particularly suited for imaging applications thanks to their transparency, allowing for the employment of fluorescence-based voltage indicators at the plasma membrane during zebrafish development. The synergy between these two components makes it possible to analyze the electrical activity of the cells in intact living organisms, without perturbing the physiological state. Finally, this non-invasive approach can co-exist with other analyses (e.g., spontaneous movement recordings, as shown here).

Protocols described here allow for the study of the electrical properties of excitable cells in the most non-invasive physiological conditions by employing zebrafish embryos in an in vivo system together with a fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based genetically encoded voltage indicator (GEVI) selectively expressed in the cell type of interest.

The protocols described here are designed to allow researchers to study cell communication without altering the integrity of the environment in which the ...

Induction of Hypoxia in Living Frog and Zebrafish Embryos

Here, we introduce a novel system for hypoxia induction, which we developed to study the effects of hypoxia in aquatic organisms such as frog and zebrafish embryos. Our system comprises a chamber featuring a simple setup that is nevertheless robust to induce and maintain a specific oxygen concentration and temperature in any experimental solution of choice. The presented system is very cost-effective but highly functional, it allows induction and sustainment of hypoxia for direct experiments in vivo and for various time periods up to 48 h.
To monitor and study the effects of hypoxia, we have employed two methods - measurement of levels of hypoxia-inducible factor 1alpha (HIF-1&#945;) in whole embryos or specific tissues and determination of retinal stem cell proliferation by 5-ethynyl-2&#8242;-deoxyuridine (EdU) incorporation into the DNA. HIF-1&#945; levels can serve as a general hypoxia marker in the whole embryo or tissue of choice, here embryonic retina. EdU incorporation into the proliferating cells of embryonic retina is a specific output of hypoxia induction. Thus, we have shown that hypoxic embryonic retinal progenitors decrease proliferation within 1 h of incubation under 5% oxygen of both frog and zebrafish embryos.
Once mastered, our setup can be employed for use with small aquatic model organisms, for direct in vivo experiments, any given time period and under normal, hypoxic or hyperoxic oxygen concentration or under any other given gas mixture.

We introduce a novel hypoxic chamber system for use with aquatic organisms such as frog and zebrafish embryos. Our system is simple, robust, cost-effective and allows the induction and sustainment of hypoxia in vivo and for up to 48 h. We present 2 reproducible methods to monitor the effectiveness of hypoxia.

Here, we introduce a novel system for hypoxia induction, which we developed to study the effects of hypoxia in aquatic organisms such as frog and ...

Single-cell Photoconversion in Living Intact Zebrafish

Animal and plant tissue is composed of distinct populations of cells. These cells interact over time to build and maintain the tissue and can cause disease when disrupted. Scientists have developed clever techniques to investigate characteristics and natural dynamics of these cells within intact tissue by expressing fluorescent proteins in subsets of cells. However, at times, experiments require more selected visualization of cells within the tissue, sometimes at the single-cell or population-of-cells manner. To achieve this and visualize single cells within a population of cells, scientists have utilized single-cell photoconversion of fluorescent proteins. To demonstrate this technique, we show here how to direct UV light to an Eos-expressing cell of interest in an intact, living zebrafish. We then image those photoconverted Eos+ cells 24 h later to determine how they changed in the tissue. We describe two techniques: single cell photoconversion and photoconversions of populations of cell. These techniques can be used to visualize cell-cell interactions, cell-fate and differentiation, and cell migrations, making it a technique that is applicable in numerous biological questions.

Here, we present a protocol to show how cell photoconversion is achieved through UV exposure to specific areas expressing the fluorescent protein, Eos, in living animals.

Animal and plant tissue is composed of distinct populations of cells. These cells interact over time to build and maintain the tissue and can cause ...

Visualization of Cellular Electrical Activity in Zebrafish Early Embryos and Tumors

Bioelectricity, endogenous electrical signaling mediated by ion channels and pumps located on the cell membrane, plays important roles in signaling processes of excitable neuronal and muscular cells and many other biological processes, such as embryonic developmental patterning. However, there is a need for in vivo electrical activity monitoring in vertebrate embryogenesis. The advances of genetically encoded fluorescent voltage indicators (GEVIs) have made it possible to provide a solution for this challenge. Here, we describe how to create a transgenic voltage indicator zebrafish using the established voltage indicator, ASAP1 (Accelerated Sensor of Action Potentials 1), as an example. The Tol2 kit and a ubiquitous zebrafish promoter, ubi, were chosen in this study. We also explain&#160;the processes of Gateway site-specific cloning, Tol2 transposon-based zebrafish transgenesis, and the imaging process for early-stage fish embryos and fish tumors using regular epifluorescent microscopes. Using this fish line, we found that there are cellular electric voltage changes during zebrafish embryogenesis, and fish larval movement. Furthermore, it was observed that in a few zebrafish malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors, the tumor cells were generally polarized compared to the surrounding normal tissues.

Here, we show the process of creating a cellular electric voltage reporter zebrafish line to visualize embryonic development, movement, and fish tumor cells in vivo.

Bioelectricity, endogenous electrical signaling mediated by ion channels and pumps located on the cell membrane, plays important roles in signaling ...

Fast and Efficient Expression of Multiple Proteins in Avian Embryos Using mRNA Electroporation

We report that mRNA electroporation permits fluorescent proteins to label cells in living quail embryos more quickly and broadly than DNA electroporation. The high transfection efficiency permits at least 4 distinct mRNAs to be co-transfected with ~87% efficiency. Most of the electroporated mRNAs are degraded during the first 2 h post-electroporation, permitting time-sensitive experiments to be carried out in the developing embryo. Finally, we describe how to dynamically image live embryos electroporated with mRNAs that encode various subcellular targeted fluorescent proteins.

We report messenger RNA (mRNA) electroporation as a method that permits fast and efficient expression of multiple proteins in the quail embryo model system. This method can be used to fluorescently label cells and record their in vivo movements by time-lapse microscopy shortly after electroporation.

We report that mRNA electroporation permits fluorescent proteins to label cells in living quail embryos more quickly and broadly than DNA electroporation. ...

Whole Mount Immunohistochemistry in Zebrafish Embryos and Larvae

Immunohistochemistry is a widely used technique to explore protein expression and localization during both normal developmental and disease states. Although many immunohistochemistry protocols have been optimized for mammalian tissue and tissue sections, these protocols often require modification and optimization for non-mammalian model organisms. Zebrafish are increasingly used as a model system in basic, biomedical, and translational research to investigate the molecular, genetic, and cell biological mechanisms of developmental processes. Zebrafish offer many advantages as a model system but also require modified techniques for optimal protein detection. Here, we provide our protocol for whole-mount fluorescence immunohistochemistry in zebrafish embryos and larvae. This protocol additionally describes several different mounting strategies that can be employed and an overview of the advantages and disadvantages each strategy provides. We also describe modifications to this protocol to allow detection of chromogenic substrates in whole mount tissue and fluorescence detection in sectioned larval tissue. This protocol is broadly applicable to the study of many developmental stages and embryonic structures.

Here, we present a protocol for fluorescent antibody-mediated detection of proteins in whole preparations of zebrafish embryos and larvae.

Immunohistochemistry is a widely used technique to explore protein expression and localization during both normal developmental and disease states. ...

Quantification of Ethanol Levels in Zebrafish Embryos Using Head Space Gas Chromatography

Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD) describe a highly variable continuum of ethanol-induced developmental defects, including facial dysmorphologies and neurological impairments. With a complex pathology, FASD affects approximately 1 in 100 children born in the United States each year. Due to the highly variable nature of FASD, animal models have proven critical in our current mechanistic understanding of ethanol-induced development defects. An increasing number of laboratories has focused on using zebrafish to examine ethanol-induced developmental defects. Zebrafish produce large numbers of externally fertilized, genetically tractable, translucent embryos. This allows researchers to precisely control timing and dosage of ethanol exposure in multiple genetic contexts and quantify the impact of embryonic ethanol exposure through live imaging techniques. This, combined with the high degree of conservation of both genetics and development with humans, has proven zebrafish to be a powerful model in which to study the mechanistic basis of ethanol teratogenicity. However, ethanol exposure regimens have varied between different zebrafish studies, which has confounded the interpretation of zebrafish data across these studies. Here is a protocol to quantify ethanol concentrations in zebrafish embryos using head space gas chromatography.

This work describes a protocol to quantify ethanol levels in a zebrafish embryo using head space gas chromatography from proper exposure methods to embryo processing and ethanol analysis.

Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD) describe a highly variable continuum of ethanol-induced developmental defects, including facial dysmorphologies ...