We thank funding from FAPESP (2015/26479-6) and CNPq (447453/2014-9). JLSM thanks CNPq for productivity grants (303664/2020-7). MPP thanks Capes (master&#39;s degree scholarship, process 88887.600591/2021-00) and CNPq.

<ol>
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The authors have nothing to disclose and no conflict of interest.

The superficial disinfestation of plant samples is one of the most critical stages in the presented protocol. No contamination in the PDA dishes with drops from the last wash are highly desirable. Bacteria are frequently observed as contaminants in the isolation dishes, usually more than airborne sporulating fungi, considering endophytic bacteria are also common within plant tissues3,11. Thus, the addition of antibiotics in the culture medium when installing the ...

An erratum was issued for:&#160;<a href="https://www.jove.com/t/65135">Isolation, Characterization, and Total DNA Extraction to Identify Endophytic Fungi in Mycoheterotrophic Plants</a>. The Authors section was updated from:
Juliana Lishcka Sampaio Mayer
to:
Juliana Lischka Sampaio Mayer

An erratum was issued for:&#160;<a href="https://www.jove.com/t/65135">Isolation, Characterization, and Total DNA Extraction to Identify Endophytic Fungi in Mycoheterotrophic Plants</a>. The Authors section was updated.

Erratum: Isolation, Characterization, and Total DNA Extraction to Identify Endophytic Fungi in Mycoheterotrophic Plants

Endophytic fungi are, by definition, those that inhabit the interior of plant organs and tissues in inconspicuous infections (i.e., without causing harm to their host)1,2. These fungi can neutrally or beneficially interact with host plants, may confer resistance to pathogens and unfavorable environmental conditions, and may contribute to the synthesis of beneficial compounds for the plant (e.g., growth factors and other phytohormones)1,3. Mycorrhizal endophytes are fungi that establish mycorrhizal associations with the plant, taking part in nutrient transfer4. In Orchidaceae, the interaction with mycorrhizal endophytes is fundamental for seed germination in the vast majority of species, and seedling establishment in all the plants in the family5. In such contexts, mycoheterotrophic orchids represent a case of total dependence regarding their mycorrhizal partners, as they depend on mineral nutrients and carbon compounds transference by these fungi during their whole life cycle6. Therefore, the isolation and identification of associating fungi is a fundamental base when investigating mycoheterotrophic life strategies. Moreover, little is known about the roles of fungal endophytes in mycoheterotrophic plants or even the real diversity of these fungi7,8.
The investigation of endophytic fungi may be conducted via different techniques, traditionally described as culture-independent or -dependent, for instance: (a) direct observation, (b) fungal isolation and morphological and/or molecular identification, and (c) total DNA extraction of plant tissues and molecular identification9. In direct observation (a), endophytic fungi may be investigated while still in the interior of plant cells and tissues by light or electron microscopy9, as different microscopy protocols are detailed by Pena-Passos et al.10. By isolation methods (b), fungal endophytes can be characterized according to their colonies, hyphae, and reproductive or resistance structure morphology. Also, via isolation techniques, it is possible to conduct the molecular identification of isolates through DNA extraction, amplification of molecular identification sequences (barcodes or fingerprints), and sequencing11. The latter technique (c) enables the molecular identification of endophytic fungi per DNA extraction while in the interior of plant tissues (metabarcoding), followed by library preparation and sequencing12.
Moreover, fungal isolates may be applied in symbiotic germination trials, using seeds from autotrophic or mycoheterotrophic orchids. An example of such an application is the investigation conducted by Sisti et al.13, describing the germination and initial stages of protocorm development in Pogoniopsis schenckii, a mycoheterotrophic orchid, in association with some of its isolates, comprising non-mycorrhizal endophytic fungi. The applied symbiotic germination protocol is detailed and presented in a video by Pena-Passos et al.10. Isolating fungi in association with different plant organs allows diverse investigation focuses regarding the nature of plant-fungal interactions (e.g., to comprehend either ecological or physiological aspects of the association, as well as inquiries into the nutrient transference from fungi to the plant)9.
The methodologies presented in section 1 are based on a collection of subterranean organ samples, as these organs present the most difficulties in collection, and they are of major interest since mycorrhizal endophytes colonize them. However, both included protocols (steps 1.1 and 1.2) may be applied to other mycoheterotrophic plant organs (e.g., rhizomes, floral stems, and fruits). The collection methodology described in step 1.1 is designated for isolating endophytic fungi (section 2) for morphological characterization (sections 4 and 5) and/or total DNA extraction for isolate identification (section 6). On the other hand, the collection methodology described in step 1.2 is exclusively assigned to total DNA extraction of plant tissues for metabarcoding techniques (section 7). In section 3, four methods for filamentous fungi storage and preservation are presented, two for short-term storage (3-6 months) and the other two adequate for long-term storage (&#62;1 year). The morphological characterization (sections 4 and 5) may be associated with molecular identification to reinforce it and provide important information on fungal macro- and micromorphology. Figure 1 summarizes the collective methodologies described thereafter.
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/65135/65135fig01.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Schematic summarization of the presented methods. Plant collection and fungal isolation, preservation, and molecular identification by culture-dependent and -independent methodologies. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/65135/65135fig01large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Adhesive tape</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>(from any company, for adhesive tape mount in micromorphological analyses)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ampicillin</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>A5354</td>
			<td>(for installation of plant fragments; other antibiotics may be used - check step 2.2.1)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Autoclave</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>(from any company, for materials sterilization in many steps)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bacteriological agar</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>A1296</td>
			<td>(for many steps)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, and C6 solutions</td>
			<td>Qiagen</td>
			<td>12888-50</td>
			<td>(purchased with DNeasy PowerSoil kit)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Centrifuge&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>Merck/Eppendorf</td>
			<td>5810 G</td>
			<td>(for total DNA extraction from fungal isolates)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Centrifuge tubes</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>CLS430828</td>
			<td>(for samples collection)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chloroform</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>C2432</td>
			<td>(for total DNA extraction from fungal isolates)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Congo red</td>
			<td>Supelco</td>
			<td>75768</td>
			<td>(for hyphae staining)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cryotubes</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>BR114831</td>
			<td>(for many steps)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethanol</td>
			<td>Supelco</td>
			<td>100983</td>
			<td>It will be necessary to carry out the appropriate dilutions (for many steps)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>3609</td>
			<td>(for total DNA extraction from fungal isolates)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Filter paper</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>WHA10010155</td>
			<td>(for many steps)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass test tubes</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>CLS7082516</td>
			<td>(for cryopreservation in unhulled rice grains)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass wool</td>
			<td>Supelco</td>
			<td>20411</td>
			<td>(for cryopreservation in unhulled rice grains)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glucose</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>G8270</td>
			<td>Or dextrose (for cryopreservation in vermiculite)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glycerol</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>G5516</td>
			<td>Or glycerin (for cryopreservation in vermiculite, for preparing LPCB)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isopropanol</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>563935</td>
			<td>(for total DNA extraction from fungal isolates)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lactic acid</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>252476</td>
			<td>(for preparing LPCB - hyphae staining)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lactophenol blue solution (LPCB)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>61335</td>
			<td>(for hyphae staining)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Laminar flow hood</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>(class I, from any company, for many steps)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Light microscope</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>(from any company, for hyphae observation)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MB Spin Columns</td>
			<td>Qiagen</td>
			<td>12888-50</td>
			<td>(purchased with DNeasy PowerSoil kit)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Methyl blue (cotton blue)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>M5528</td>
			<td>(for preparing LPCB - hyphae staining)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microcentrifuge tube (1.5 mL)</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>HS4323</td>
			<td>(for total DNA extraction from fungal isolates)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microcentrifuge tube (2 mL)</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>BR780546</td>
			<td>(for many steps)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mineral oil</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>(for preservation of fungal isolates)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Paper bags</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Average size 150 mm x 200 mm (for samples collection)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Petri dish (Glass, 120 mm x 20 mm)</td>
			<td>Merck/Pyrex</td>
			<td>SLW1480/10D</td>
			<td>(autoclavable, for fungi slide culture, prefer higher ones)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Petri dish (Glass, 50 mm x 17 mm)</td>
			<td>Merck/Aldrich</td>
			<td>Z740618</td>
			<td>(for purification of fungal isolates); alternatively: polystyrene petri dishes (sterile, &#947;-irradiated, non-autoclavable)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Petri dish (Glass, 80 mm x 15 mm)</td>
			<td>Merck/Brand</td>
			<td>BR455732</td>
			<td>(for installation of plant fragments); alternatively: polystyrene petri dishes (sterile, &#947;-irradiated, non-autoclavable)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phenol</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P1037</td>
			<td>(for total DNA extraction from fungal isolates, for preparing LPCB)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Porcelain mortar</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>Z247464</td>
			<td>(for total DNA extraction from fungal isolates)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Porcelain pestle</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>Z247502</td>
			<td>(for total DNA extraction from fungal isolates)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potato dextrose agar (PDA)</td>
			<td>Millipore</td>
			<td>P2182</td>
			<td>(for many steps)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PowerBead tubes</td>
			<td>Qiagen</td>
			<td>12888-50</td>
			<td>(purchased with DNeasy PowerSoil kit)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rapid mounting medium (Entellan)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>1.0796</td>
			<td>(for fungi slide culture)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Silica gel</td>
			<td>Supelco</td>
			<td>717185</td>
			<td>(for cryopreservation in unhulled rice grains)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium chloride (NaCl)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S9888</td>
			<td>(for total DNA extraction from fungal isolates)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>L3771</td>
			<td>Lauryl sulfate sodium salt (for total DNA extraction from fungal isolates)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium hypochlorite (w/ 2% active chlorine)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>(commercial product, for superficial desinfestation)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Soil DNA extraction kit (DNeasy PowerSoil kit)</td>
			<td>Qiagen</td>
			<td>12888-50</td>
			<td>(for total DNA extraction from plant organs)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Spectrophotometer - Nanodrop 2000/2000c</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>ND2000CLAPTOP</td>
			<td>(for total DNA extraction from plant organs)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stereomicroscope</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>(=dissecting microscope, from any company, for macromorphological analyses)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tetracycline</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>T7660</td>
			<td>(for installation of plant fragments)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Thermoblock</td>
			<td>Merck/Eppendorf</td>
			<td>EP5362000035</td>
			<td>(or from other companies)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tissue homogenizer and cell lyzer</td>
			<td>SPEX SamplePrep</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>2010 Geno/Grinder - Automated Tissue Homogenizer and Cell Lyzer (for total DNA extraction from plant organs)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Toluidine blue O</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich/Harleco</td>
			<td>364-M</td>
			<td>(for hyphae staining)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trehalose</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>T9531</td>
			<td>(for cryopreservation in vermiculite)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tris Base Solution (Tris)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>T1699</td>
			<td>(for total DNA extraction from fungal isolates)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Unhulled rice grains</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>(for cryopreservation)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>U-shaped glass rod</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>(or an adaptation - check step 5.4.1, for fungi slide culture)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vermiculite</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Fine granulometry (for cryopreservation in vermiculite)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vortexer</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich/BenchMixer</td>
			<td>BMSBV1000</td>
			<td>(for total DNA extraction from fungal isolates)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Yeast extract</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>Y1625</td>
			<td>(for cryopreservation in vermiculite)</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

isolation, characterization, and total dna extraction to identify endophytic fungi in mycoheterotrophic plants

Mycoheterotrophic plants present one of the most extreme forms of mycorrhizal dependency, having totally lost their autotrophic capacity. As essential as any other vital resource, the fungi with which these plants intimately associate are essential for them. Hence, some of the most relevant techniques in studying mycoheterotrophic species are the ones that enable the investigation of associated fungi, especially those inhabiting roots and subterranean organs. In this context, techniques for identifying culture-dependent and culture-independent endophytic fungi are commonly applied. Isolating fungal endophytes provides a means for morphologically identifying them, analyzing their diversity, and maintaining inocula for applications in the symbiotic germination of orchid seeds. However, it is known that there is a large variety of non-culturable fungi inhabiting plant tissues. Thus, culture-independent molecular identification techniques offer a broader cover of species diversity and abundance. This article aims to provide the methodological support necessary for starting two investigation procedures: a culture-dependent and an independent one. Regarding the culture-dependent protocol, the processes of collecting and maintaining plant samples from collection sites to laboratory facilities are detailed, along with isolating filamentous fungi from subterranean and aerial organs of mycoheterotrophic plants, keeping a collection of isolates, morphologically characterizing hyphae by slide culture methodology, and molecular identification of fungi by total DNA extraction. Encompassing culture-independent methodologies, the detailed procedures include collecting plant samples for metagenomic analyses and total DNA extraction from achlorophyllous plant organs using a commercial kit. Finally, continuity protocols (e.g., polymerase chain reaction [PCR], sequencing) are also suggested for analyses, and techniques are presented here.

In the isolation protocol, considering there is contamination from the water used on the last wash and the contamination is also detected in the Petri dishes with inoculated fragments, different actions may be taken, depending on the type of contaminant (Table 1). This procedure must be repeated from the beginning in case of highly sporulating fungal contaminants, which also present accelerated growth, and intense-multiplying bacteria, resistant to the chosen antibiotics....

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Isolation, Characterization, and Total DNA Extraction to Identify Endophytic Fungi in Mycoheterotrophic Plants at JoVE.com

Isolation, Characterization, and Total DNA Extraction to Identify Endophytic Fungi in Mycoheterotrophic Plants

The current article aims to provide detailed and adequate protocols for the isolation of plant-associated endophytic fungi, long-term preservation of isolates, morphological characterization, and total DNA extraction for subsequent molecular identification and metagenomic analyses.

Mycoheterotrophic plants present one of the most extreme forms of mycorrhizal dependency, having totally lost their autotrophic capacity. As essential as ...

isolation-characterization-total-dna-extraction-to-identify

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2.4K Views.  State University of Campinas (UNICAMP). The current article aims to provide detailed and adequate protocols for the isolation of plant-associated endophytic fungi, long-term preservation of isolates, morphological characterization, and total DNA extraction for subsequent molecular identification and metagenomic analyses.

Video: Isolation, Characterization, and Total DNA Extraction to Identify Endophytic Fungi in Mycoheterotrophic Plants

RNA Extraction from Neuroprecursor Cells Using the Bio-Rad Total RNA Kit

Isolation and Characterization of RNA-Containing Exosomes

The field of exosome research is rapidly expanding, with a dramatic increase in publications in recent years. These small vesicles (30-100 nm) of endocytic origin were first proposed to function as a way for reticulocytes to eradicate the transferrin receptor while maturing into erythrocytes1, and were later named exosomes. Exosomes are formed by inward budding of late endosomes, producing multivesicular bodies (MVBs), and are released into the environment by fusion of the MVBs with the plasma membrane2. Since the first discovery of exosomes, a wide range of cells have been shown to release these vesicles. Exosomes have also been detected in several biological fluids, including plasma, nasal lavage fluid, saliva and breast milk3-6. Furthermore, it has been demonstrated that the content and function of exosomes depends on the originating cell and the conditions under which they are produced. A variety of functions have been demonstrated for exosomes, such as induction of tolerance against allergen7,8, eradication of established tumors in mice9, inhibition and activation of natural killer cells10-12, promotion of differentiation into T regulatory cells13, stimulation of T cell proliferation14 and induction of T cell apoptosis15. Year 2007 we demonstrated that exosomes released from mast cells contain messenger RNA (mRNA) and microRNA (miRNA), and that the RNA can be shuttled from one cell to another via exosomes. In the recipient cells, the mRNA shuttled by exosomes was shown to be translated into protein, suggesting a regulatory function of the transferred RNA16. Further, we have also shown that exosomes derived from cells grown under oxidative stress can induce tolerance against further stress in recipient cells and thus suggest a biological function of the exosomal shuttle RNA17. Cell culture media and biological fluids contain a mixture of vesicles and shed fragments. A high quality isolation method for exosomes, followed by characterization and identification of the exosomes and their content, is therefore crucial to distinguish exosomes from other vesicles and particles. Here, we present a method for the isolation of exosomes from both cell culture medium and body fluids. This isolation method is based on repeated centrifugation and filtration steps, followed by a final ultracentrifugation step in which the exosomes are pelleted. Important methods to identify the exosomes and characterize the exosomal morphology and protein content are highlighted, including electron microscopy, flow cytometry and Western blot. The purification of the total exosomal RNA is based on spin column chromatography and the exosomal RNA yield and size distribution is analyzed using a Bioanalyzer.

This paper demonstrates methods for the isolation, purification and detection of exosomes, as well as techniques for analysis of their molecular content. These methods are adaptable for exosome isolation from both cell culture media and biological fluids, and can beyond analysis of molecular content also be useful in functional studies.

The field of exosome research is rapidly expanding, with a dramatic increase in publications in recent years. These small vesicles (30-100 nm) of ...

Isolation of Ribosome Bound Nascent Polypeptides in vitro to Identify Translational Pause Sites Along mRNA

The rate of translational elongation is non-uniform. mRNA secondary structure, codon usage and mRNA associated proteins may alter ribosome movement on the messagefor review see 1. However, it's now widely accepted that synonymous codon usage is the primary cause of non-uniform translational elongation rates1. Synonymous codons are not used with identical frequency. A bias exists in the use of synonymous codons with some codons used more frequently than others2. Codon bias is organism as well as tissue specific2,3. Moreover, frequency of codon usage is directly proportional to the concentrations of cognate tRNAs4. Thus, a frequently used codon will have higher multitude of corresponding tRNAs, which further implies that a frequent codon will be translated faster than an infrequent one. Thus, regions on mRNA enriched in rare codons (potential pause sites) will as a rule slow down ribosome movement on the message and cause accumulation of nascent peptides of the respective sizes5-8. These pause sites can have functional impact on the protein expression, mRNA stability and protein foldingfor review see 9. Indeed, it was shown that alleviation of such pause sites can alter ribosome movement on mRNA and subsequently may affect the efficiency of co-translational (in vivo) protein folding1,7,10,11. To understand the process of protein folding in vivo, in the cell, that is ultimately coupled to the process of protein synthesis it is essential to gain comprehensive insights into the impact of codon usage/tRNA content on the movement of ribosomes along mRNA during translational elongation.
Here we describe a simple technique that can be used to locate major translation pause sites for a given mRNA translated in various cell-free systems6-8. This procedure is based on isolation of nascent polypeptides accumulating on ribosomes during in vitro translation of a target mRNA. The rationale is that at low-frequency codons, the increase in the residence time of the ribosomes results in increased amounts of nascent peptides of the corresponding sizes. In vitro transcribed mRNA is used for in vitro translational reactions in the presence of radioactively labeled amino acids to allow the detection of the nascent chains. In order to isolate ribosome bound nascent polypeptide complexes the translation reaction is layered on top of 30% glycerol solution followed by centrifugation. Nascent polypeptides in polysomal pellet are further treated with ribonuclease A and resolved by SDS PAGE. This technique can be potentially used for any protein and allows analysis of ribosome movement along mRNA and the detection of the major pause sites. Additionally, this protocol can be adapted to study factors and conditions that can alter ribosome movement and thus potentially can also alter the function/conformation of the protein.

Isolation of Ribosome Bound Nascent Polypeptides in vitro to Identify Translational Pause Sites Along mRNA

A technique to identify translational pause sites on mRNA is described. This procedure is based on isolation of nascent polypeptides accumulating on ribosomes during in vitro translation of a target mRNA, followed by the size analysis of the nascent chains using a denaturing gel electrophoresis.

The rate of translational elongation is non-uniform. mRNA secondary structure, codon usage and mRNA associated proteins may alter ribosome movement on the ...

DNA Electroporation, Isolation and Imaging of Myofibers

Mature muscle has a unique structure that is amenable to live cell imaging. Herein, we describe the experimental protocol for expressing fluorescently labeled proteins in the flexor digitorum brevis (FDB) muscle. Conditions have been optimized to provide a large number of high quality myofibers expressing the electroporated plasmid while minimizing muscle damage. The method employs fluorescent tags on various proteins. Combining this expression method with high resolution confocal microscopy permits live cell imaging, including imaging after laser-induced damage. Fluorescent dyes combined with imaging of fluorescently-tagged proteins provides information regarding the basic structure of muscle and its response to stimuli.

This protocol utilizes electroporation to introduce and express fluorescently labeled proteins in mouse muscle fibers. Following recovery after electroporation, fibers are isolated. Individual fibers are then imaged using high resolution confocal microscopy to visualize muscle structure.

Mature muscle has a unique structure that is amenable to live cell imaging. Herein, we describe the experimental protocol for expressing fluorescently ...

Filtration Isolation of Nucleic Acids:  A Simple and Rapid DNA Extraction Method

FINA, filtration isolation of nucleic acids, is a novel extraction method which utilizes vertical filtration via a separation membrane and absorbent pad to extract cellular DNA from whole blood in less than 2 min. The blood specimen is treated with detergent, mixed briefly and applied by pipet to the separation membrane. The lysate wicks into the blotting pad due to capillary action, capturing the genomic DNA on the surface of the separation membrane. The extracted DNA is retained on the membrane during a simple wash step wherein PCR inhibitors are wicked into the absorbent blotting pad. The membrane containing the entrapped DNA is then added to the PCR reaction without further purification. This simple method does not require laboratory equipment and can be easily implemented with inexpensive laboratory supplies. Here we describe a protocol for highly sensitive detection and quantitation of HIV-1 proviral DNA from 100 &#181;l whole blood as a model for early infant diagnosis of HIV that could readily be adapted to other genetic targets.

We describe here a simple and rapid paper-based DNA extraction method of HIV proviral DNA from whole blood detected by quantitative PCR. This protocol can be extended for use in detecting other genetic markers or using alternative amplification methods.

FINA, filtration isolation of nucleic acids, is a novel extraction method which utilizes vertical filtration via a separation membrane and absorbent pad ...

Modified Methods for Loading of High-Throughput DNA Extraction Plates Reduce Potential for Contamination

High-throughput DNA sequencing techniques have contributed substantially to advances in our understanding of relationships among microbial communities, host characteristics, and broader ecosystem functions. With this rapid increase in breadth and depth of sequencing capabilities have come methods to extract, amplify, analyze, and interpret environmental DNA successfully with maximum efficiency. Unfortunately, performing DNA extractions quickly can come at the cost of increasing the risk of contamination among samples. In particular, high-throughput extractions that are based on samples contained in a 96-well plate offer a relatively quick method, compared to single-tube extractions, but also increase opportunities for well-to-well cross-contamination. To minimize the risk of cross-contamination among samples, while retaining the benefits of high-throughput extraction techniques, we developed a new method for loading environmental samples into 96-well plates. We used pierceable PCR sealing films to cover each plate while loading samples and added samples first to PCR tubes before moving them into wells; together, these practices reduce the risk of sample drift and unintended double loading of wells. The method outlined in this paper provides researchers with an approach to maximize available high-throughput extraction techniques while reducing the risk of cross-contamination inherent to 96-well plates. We provide a detailed step by step outline of how to move from sample collection to DNA extraction while minimizing the risk of unwanted cross-contamination.

Current methods for loading 96-well plates for DNA extractions can be prone to contamination. We detail a new method for loading 96-well plates that reduces risk of cross-contamination among wells. Our method will help other researchers capitalize on the efficiency of high-throughput DNA extraction techniques and minimize risk of contamination.

High-throughput DNA sequencing techniques have contributed substantially to advances in our understanding of relationships among microbial communities, ...

Systematic Approach to Identify Novel Antimicrobial and Antibiofilm Molecules from Plants' Extracts and Fractions to Prevent Dental Caries

Natural products provide structurally different substances, with a myriad of biological activities. However, the identification and isolation of active compounds from plants are challenging because of the complex plant matrix and time-consuming isolation and identification procedures. Therefore, a stepwise approach for screening natural compounds from plants, including the isolation and identification of potentially active molecules, is presented. It includes the collection of the plant material; preparation and fractionation of crude extracts; chromatography and spectrometry (UHPLC-DAD-HRMS and NMR) approaches for analysis and compounds identification; bioassays (antimicrobial and antibiofilm activities; bacterial &#34;adhesion strength&#34; to the salivary pellicle and initial glucan matrix treated with selected treatments); and data analysis. The model is simple, reproducible, and allows high-throughput screening of multiple compounds, concentrations, and treatment steps can be consistently controlled. The data obtained provide the foundation for future studies, including formulations with the most active extracts and/or fractions, isolation of molecules, modeling molecules to specific targets in microbial cells and biofilms. For example, one target to control cariogenic biofilm is to inhibit the activity of Streptococcus mutans glucosyltransferases that synthesize the extracellular matrix&#8217; glucans. The inhibition of those enzymes prevents the biofilm build-up, decreasing its virulence.

Natural products represent promising starting points for the development of new drugs and therapeutic agents. However, due to the high chemical diversity, finding new therapeutic compounds from plants is a challenging and time-consuming task. We describe a simplified approach to identify antimicrobial and antibiofilm molecules from plant extracts and fractions.

Natural products provide structurally different substances, with a myriad of biological activities. However, the identification and isolation of active ...

Profiling of H3K4me3 Modification in Plants using Cleavage under Targets and Tagmentation

Epigenomic regulation at the chromatic level, including DNA and histone modifications, behaviors of transcription factors, and non-coding RNAs with their recruited proteins, lead to temporal and spatial control of gene expression. Cleavage under targets and tagmentation (CUT&#38;Tag) is an enzyme-tethering method in which the specific chromatin protein is firstly recognized by its specific antibody, and then the antibody tethers a protein A-transposase (pA-Tn5) fusion protein, which cleaves the targeted chromatin in situ by the activation of magnesium ions. Here, we provide our previously published CUT&#38;Tag protocol using intact nuclei isolated from allortetraploid cotton leaves with modification. This step-by-step protocol can be used for epigenomic research in plants. In addition, substantial modifications for plant nuclei isolation are provided with critical comments.

Cleavage under targets and tagmentation (CUT&amp;Tag) is an efficient chromatin epigenomic profiling strategy. This protocol presents a refined CUT&amp;Tag strategy for the profiling of histone modifications in plants.

Epigenomic regulation at the chromatic level, including DNA and histone modifications, behaviors of transcription factors, and non-coding RNAs with their ...

Isolation and Characterization of Intact Phycobilisome in Cyanobacteria

In cyanobacteria, phycobilisome is a vital antenna protein complex that harvests light and transfers energy to photosystem I and II for photochemistry. Studying the structure and composition of phycobilisome is of great interest to scientists because it reveals the evolution and divergence of photosynthesis in cyanobacteria. This protocol provides a detailed and optimized method to break cyanobacterial cells at low cost by a bead-beater efficiently. The intact phycobilisome can then be isolated from the cell extract by sucrose gradient ultracentrifugation. This method has demonstrated being suitable for both model and non-model cyanobacteria with different cell types. A step-by-step procedure is also provided to confirm the integrity and property of phycobiliproteins by 77K fluorescence spectroscopy and SDS-PAGE stained by zinc sulfate and Coomassie Blue. The isolated phycobilisome can also be subjected to further structural and compositional analyses. Overall, this protocol provides a helpful starting guide that allows researchers unfamiliar with cyanobacteria to quickly isolate and characterize intact phycobilisome.

The current protocol details the isolation of phycobilisomes from cyanobacteria by centrifugation through a discontinuous sucrose density gradient. The fractions of intact phycobilisomes are confirmed by 77K fluorescent emission spectrum and SDS-PAGE analysis. The resulting phycobilisome fractions are suitable for negative staining of TEM and mass spectrometry analysis.

In cyanobacteria, phycobilisome is a vital antenna protein complex that harvests light and transfers energy to photosystem I and II for photochemistry. ...

Isolation and Screening from Soil Biodiversity for Fungi Involved in the Degradation of Recalcitrant Materials

Environmental pollution is an increasing problem, and identifying fungi involved in the bioremediation process is an essential task. Soil hosts an incredible diversity of microbial life and can be a good source of these bioremediative fungi. This work aims to search for soil fungi with bioremediation potential by using different screening tests. Mineral culture media supplemented with recalcitrant substances as the sole carbon source were used as growth tests. First, soil dilutions were plated on Petri dishes with mineral medium amended with humic acids or lignocellulose. The growing fungal colonies were isolated and tested on different substrates, such as complex mixtures of hydrocarbons (petrolatum and used motor oil) and powders of different plastic polymers (PET, PP, PS, PUR, PVC). Qualitative enzymatic tests were associated with the growth tests to investigate the production of esterases, laccases, peroxidases, and proteases. These enzymes are involved in the main degradation processes of recalcitrant material, and their constitutive secretion by the examined fungal strains could have the potential to be exploited for bioremediation. More than 100 strains were isolated and tested, and several isolates with good bioremediation potential were found. In conclusion, the described screening tests are an easy and low-cost method to identify fungal strains with bioremediation potential from the soil. In addition, it is possible to tailor the screening tests for different pollutants, according to requirements, by adding other recalcitrant substances to minimal culture media.

Here, we present a protocol for screening soil biodiversity to look for fungal strains involved in the degradation of recalcitrant materials. First, fungal strains able to grow on humic acids or lignocellulose are isolated. Their activity is then tested both in enzymatic assays and on pollutants such as hydrocarbons and plastics.