This work was funded by start-up funds provided to Dr. Silviya P Zustiak by Saint Louis University as well as by a seed grant from the Henry and Amelia Nasrallah Center for Neuroscience at Saint Louis University awarded to Dr. Silviya P Zustiak.

Fabrication Followed by 3D Encapsulation of Tumor Spheroids in PEG Hydrogels

<ol>
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S., Kim, Y., Rao, S. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Three-dimensional+biomimetic+hyaluronic+acid+hydrogels+to+investigate+glioblastoma+stem+cell+behaviors.">Three-dimensional biomimetic hyaluronic acid hydrogels to investigate glioblastoma stem cell behaviors.</a> Biotechnology and Bioengineering. 117 (2), 511-522 (2020).</li><li>Xiao, W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bioengineered+scaffolds+for+3D+culture+demonstrate+extracellular+matrix-mediated+mechanisms+of+chemotherapy+resistance+in+glioblastoma.">Bioengineered scaffolds for 3D culture demonstrate extracellular matrix-mediated mechanisms of chemotherapy resistance in glioblastoma.</a> Matrix Biology. 85, 128-146 (2020).</li><li>Pedron, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hyaluronic+acid-functionalized+gelatin+hydrogels+reveal+extracellular+matrix+signals+temper+the+efficacy+of+erlotinib+against+patient-derived+glioblastoma+specimens.">Hyaluronic acid-functionalized gelatin hydrogels reveal extracellular matrix signals temper the efficacy of erlotinib against patient-derived glioblastoma specimens.</a> Biomaterials. 219, 119371 (2019).</li><li>Hill, L., Bruns, J., Zustiak, S. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hydrogel+matrix+presence+and+composition+influence+drug+responses+of+encapsulated+glioblastoma+spheroids.">Hydrogel matrix presence and composition influence drug responses of encapsulated glioblastoma spheroids.</a> Acta Biomaterialia. 132, 437-447 (2021).</li><li>Chen, J. -. W. E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Crosstalk+between+microglia+and+patient-derived+glioblastoma+cells+inhibit+invasion+in+a+three-dimensional+gelatin+hydrogel+model.">Crosstalk between microglia and patient-derived glioblastoma cells inhibit invasion in a three-dimensional gelatin hydrogel model.</a> Journal of Neuroinflammation. 17 (1), 346 (2020).</li><li>Thakuri, P. S., Liu, C., Luker, G. D., Tavana, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Biomaterials-based+approaches+to+tumor+spheroid+and+organoid+modeling.">Biomaterials-based approaches to tumor spheroid and organoid modeling.</a> Advanced Healthcare Materials. 7 (6), 1700980 (2018).</li><li>Shin, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Alginate-marine+collagen-agarose+composite+hydrogels+as+matrices+for+biomimetic+3D+cell+spheroid+formation.">Alginate-marine collagen-agarose composite hydrogels as matrices for biomimetic 3D cell spheroid formation.</a> RSC Advances. 6 (52), 46952-46965 (2016).</li><li>Pradhan, S., Clary, J. M., Seliktar, D., Lipke, E. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+three-dimensional+spheroidal+cancer+model+based+on+PEG-fibrinogen+hydrogel+microspheres.">A three-dimensional spheroidal cancer model based on PEG-fibrinogen hydrogel microspheres.</a> Biomaterials. 115, 141-154 (2017).</li><li>Imaninezhad, M., Hill, L., Kolar, G., Vogt, K., Zustiak, S. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Templated+macroporous+polyethylene+glycol+hydrogels+for+spheroid+and+aggregate+cell+culture.">Templated macroporous polyethylene glycol hydrogels for spheroid and aggregate cell culture.</a> Bioconjugate Chemistry. 30 (1), 34-46 (2018).</li><li>Mirab, F., Kang, Y. J., Majd, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Preparation+and+characterization+of+size-controlled+glioma+spheroids+using+agarose+hydrogel+microwells.">Preparation and characterization of size-controlled glioma spheroids using agarose hydrogel microwells.</a> PLoS One. 14 (1), e0211078 (2019).</li><li>Razian, G., Yu, Y., Ungrin, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Production+of+large+numbers+of+size-controlled+tumor+spheroids+using+microwell+plates.">Production of large numbers of size-controlled tumor spheroids using microwell plates.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments: JoVE. 81, e50665 (2013).</li><li>Timmins, N. E., Nielsen, L. K., Hauser, H., Fussenegger, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Generation of Multicellular Tumor Spheroids by the Hanging-Drop Method. 140, (2007).</li><li>Zhao, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+3D+printed+hanging+drop+dripper+for+tumor+spheroids+analysis+without+recovery.">A 3D printed hanging drop dripper for tumor spheroids analysis without recovery.</a> Scientific Reports. 9 (1), 19717 (2019).</li><li>Amaral, R. L., Miranda, M., Marcato, P. 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The authors have nothing to disclose.

Hydrogel-based multicellular tumor spheroid models are increasingly being developed to advance cancer therapeutic discoveries11,13,29. They are beneficial because they emulate key parameters of the tumor microenvironment in a controlled manner and, despite their complexity, are simpler and cheaper to use than in vivo models, and many are compatible with high-throughput screening technologies. The hydrogel biomaterials can be tun...

Tumor spheroids have emerged as useful in vitro tools in studying cancer etiology, pathology, and drug responsiveness1. Traditionally, spheroids have been cultured in conditions such as low adhesion plates or bioreactors, where cell-cell adhesion is favored over cell-surface adhesion2. However, it is now recognized that to recapitulate the tumor microenvironment more faithfully, in vitro spheroid models should capture both cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions. This has prompted multiple groups to design scaffolds, such as hydrogels, where spheroids can be encapsulated3,4. Such hydrogel-based spheroid models enable the elucidation of cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions on various cell behaviors, such as viability, proliferation, stemness, or therapy responsiveness3.
Here, we describe a protocol for the encapsulation of glioblastoma spheroids in polyethylene glycol (PEG) hydrogels. There are multiple literature reports of glioblastoma cell spheroid encapsulation in hydrogels. For example, spheroids were formed by encapsulating U87 cells in PEG hydrogels decorated with an RGDS adhesive ligand and crosslinked with an enzymatically cleavable peptide to determine the effect of hydrogel stiffness on cell behavior5. U87 cells have also been formed in other PEG-based or hyaluronic acid-based hydrogels to expand the cancer stem cell population6 or to explore matrix-mediated mechanisms of chemotherapy resistance7,8,9. Glioblastoma spheroids have also been encapsulated in gelatin hydrogels to study the crosstalk between microglia and cancer cells and its effect on cell invasion10. Overall, such studies have demonstrated the utility of hydrogel-based in vitro models in understanding glioblastoma pathology and devising treatments.
Further, there are different methods for tumor spheroid fabrication and hydrogel encapsulation11. For example, dispersed cells could be seeded in hydrogels and allowed to form spheroids over time5,12. One drawback of such a method is the polydispersity of the formed spheroids, which could lead to differential cell responses. To produce uniform spheroids, cells could be encapsulated in microgels and cultured for extended periods until they invade and remodel the gel13, or cells could be deposited in templated gels with spherical &#39;holes&#39; and allowed to aggregate14. The drawback of these methods is their relative complexity, the need for a droplet generator or other means to form microgels or the &#39;holes&#39; in the gel, and the time it takes for spheroids to grow and mature. Alternatively, spheroids could be pre-formed in microwells9,15,16 or in hanging-drop plates17,18 and then encapsulated in a hydrogel, similar to the technique described here. These methods are simpler and can be done in a higher throughput fashion. Interestingly, it has been shown that the method of spheroid formation can affect spheroid cell behaviors, such as gene expression, cell proliferation, or drug responsiveness19,20.
Here, we focus on glioblastoma since it is a solid tumor whose native environment is the soft, nanoporous brain matrix21, which can be mimicked by a soft, nanoporous hydrogel. Glioblastoma is also the deadliest brain cancer for which there is no available cure22. However, the protocol described here can be used for the encapsulation of spheroids representing any solid tumor. We chose to use PEG hydrogels that are formed through a Michael-type addition reaction23. PEG is a synthetic, non-degradable, and biocompatible hydrogel that is inert and serves as scaffolding and physical cell support but does not support cell attachment23. Cell adhesiveness can be added separately via tethering of whole proteins or adhesive ligands24, and degradability can be added via chemical modifications of the PEG polymer chain or hydrolytically or enzymatically degradable crosslinkers25,26. This allows for biochemical properties to be tuned independently of mechanical or physical hydrogel properties, which could be advantageous in studying cell-matrix interactions. The Michael-type gelation chemistry is selective and happens at physiological conditions; hence, it allows for spheroid encapsulation by simply mixing the spheroids with the hydrogel precursor solution.
Overall, the methodology presented here has several notable characteristics. First, fabricating tumor spheroids in a multiwell assembly is efficient, quick, and the cost of the required materials is low. Second, the spheroids are produced in large batches in a variety of sizes with low polydispersity. Finally, only commercially available materials are required. The utility of the methodology is illustrated by exploring the effect of substrate properties on spheroid cell viability, circularity, and cell stemness.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>70% Ethanol</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific&#160;</td>
			<td>LC22210-4</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>15 mL Conicals</td>
			<td>FALCON</td>
			<td>352097</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>24-Well Plate Ultra Low Attachment plates</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>07-200-602</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>35 mm Petri Dish</td>
			<td>Amazon</td>
			<td>706011</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>4-arm poly(ethylene glycol)-acrylate (4-arm PEG-Ac; 10 kDa)</td>
			<td>Laysan Bio</td>
			<td>ACRL-PEG-ACRL-10K-5g</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>50 mL Conicals</td>
			<td>Fisher Scinetific</td>
			<td>3181345107</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>6-well AggreWell 400&#160;</td>
			<td>StemCell Technologies, Vancouver, Canada</td>
			<td>34421</td>
			<td>Square pyramidal microwells&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>anti-adherence rinsing solution</td>
			<td>StemCell Technologies, Vancouver, Canada</td>
			<td>Cat #: 07010</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Aspartic Acid-Arginine-Cysteine-Glycine-Valine-Proline-Methionine-Serine-Methionine-Arginine-Glycine-Cysteine-Arginine- Aspartic Acid (DRCG-VPMSMR-GCRD) peptide</td>
			<td>Genic Bio, Shanghai, China</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
			<td>Custom synthesis</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chemical Fume Hood</td>
			<td>KEWAUNEE</td>
			<td>99151</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Corning Matrigel Basement Membrane Matrix, LDEV Free&#160;</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>356234</td>
			<td>Basement membrane matrix</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DAPI (4&#39;,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole, dihydrochloride)</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>62247</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Detergent - Triton-X</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>T8787</td>
			<td>Nonionic surfactant</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO)</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific&#160;</td>
			<td>BP231-100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Disposable Pipettes (1 mL, 2 mL, 5 mL, 10 mL, 25 mL, 50 mL)</td>
			<td>Fisher Scinetific</td>
			<td>1 mL: 13-678-11B, 2mL: 05214038, 5mL(FALCON): 357529, 10mL: 13-678-11E, 25mL: 13-678-11, 50mL: 13-678-11F</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fetal Bovine Serum</td>
			<td>HyClone</td>
			<td>SH30073-03</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Formaldehyde 37% Solution</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>F1635</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass Plates</td>
			<td>Slumpys</td>
			<td>GBS4100SFSL</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass Transfer Pipettes</td>
			<td>Fisher Scinetific</td>
			<td>5 3/4&#34;: 1367820A, 9&#34;:136786B</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glycine-Arginine-Cysteine-Aspartic Acid-Arginine-Glycine-Aspartic Acid-Serine (GRCD-RGDS) peptide</td>
			<td>Genic Bio, Shanghai, China</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
			<td>Custom synthesis</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hemacytometer</td>
			<td>Bright-Line</td>
			<td>383684</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hydrophobic solution - Repel Silane&#160;</td>
			<td>GE Healthcare Bio-Sciences</td>
			<td>17-1332-01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Incubator</td>
			<td>NUAIRE</td>
			<td>NU-8500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Inverted Microscope (Axiovert 25)</td>
			<td>Zeiss</td>
			<td>663526</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Invitrogen DiOC16(3) (3,3&#39;-Dihexadecyloxacarbocyanine Perchlorate)</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific&#160;</td>
			<td>D1125</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Leica Confocal SP8</td>
			<td>Leica Microsystems Inc.</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Light and Flourescent Microscope (Axiovert 200M)</td>
			<td>Zeiss</td>
			<td>3820005619</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micro centrifuge tubes</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>2 mL: 02681258</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microscope Software</td>
			<td>Zeiss</td>
			<td>AxioVision Rel. 4.8.2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nestin Alexa Fluor 594&#160;</td>
			<td>Santa Cruz Biotechnology</td>
			<td>sc-23927</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Parafilm</td>
			<td>PARAFILM&#160;</td>
			<td>PM992</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PBS (1x), pH 7.4</td>
			<td>HyClone</td>
			<td>SH30256.01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Penicillin Streptomycin</td>
			<td>MP Biomedicals</td>
			<td>1670046</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pipette Aid</td>
			<td>Drummond Scientific Co.</td>
			<td>P-76864</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pipette Tips (1&#8211;200 &#181;L, 101&#8211;1000 &#181;L)</td>
			<td>Fisher Scinetific</td>
			<td>2707509</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plastic Standard Disposable Transfer Pipettes</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>13-711-9D</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plastic Weigh Boats (100 mL)</td>
			<td>Amazon&#160;</td>
			<td>mdo-azoc-1030</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>poly(ethylene glycol)-dithiol (PEG-diSH; 3.4 kDa)</td>
			<td>Laysan Bio</td>
			<td>SH-PEG-SH-3400-5g</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polydimehylsiloxane (PDMS) [Slygard 182 Elastomer Kit]</td>
			<td>Elsworth Adhesives</td>
			<td>3097358-1004</td>
			<td>Polydimethylsiloxane</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Powder Free Examination Gloves</td>
			<td>Quest</td>
			<td>92897</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Propidium iodide, 1 mg/mL aqueous soln.&#160;</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific&#160;</td>
			<td>AAJ66584AB</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RPMI-1640 Medium (1x)</td>
			<td>HyClone</td>
			<td>SH30027-02</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Silicone spacers - Silicone sheet, 0.5 mm thick/13 cm x 18 cm</td>
			<td>Grace Bio-Labs</td>
			<td>JTR-S-0.5</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SOX2 Alexa Fluor 488&#160;</td>
			<td>Santa Cruz Biotechnology</td>
			<td>sc-365823</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tissue Culture Hood</td>
			<td>NUAIRE</td>
			<td>NU-425-600</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Triethanolamine, &#8805;99.0% (GC)&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>90279</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trypsin 0.25% (1x)&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>SH30042.01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>U-87 MG human glioblastoma cells</td>
			<td>American Type Culture Collection&#160;</td>
			<td>HTB-14</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

tumor spheroid fabrication and encapsulation in polyethylene glycol hydrogels for studying spheroid-matrix interactions

Three-dimensional (3D) encapsulation of spheroids is crucial to adequately replicate the tumor microenvironment for optimal cell growth. Here, we designed an in vitro 3D glioblastoma model for spheroid encapsulation to mimic the tumor extracellular microenvironment. First, we formed square pyramidal microwell molds using polydimethylsiloxane. These microwell molds were then used to fabricate tumor spheroids with tightly controlled sizes from 50-500 &#956;m. Once spheroids were formed, they were harvested and encapsulated in polyethylene glycol (PEG)-based hydrogels. PEG hydrogels are a versatile platform for spheroid encapsulation, as hydrogel properties such as stiffness, degradability, and cell adhesiveness can be tuned independently. Here, we used a representative soft (~8 kPa) hydrogel to encapsulate glioblastoma spheroids. Finally, a method to stain and image spheroids was developed to obtain high-quality images via confocal microscopy. Due to the dense spheroid core and relatively sparse periphery, imaging can be difficult, but using a clearing solution and confocal optical sectioning helps alleviate these imaging difficulties. In summary, we show a method to fabricate uniform spheroids, encapsulate them in PEG hydrogels and perform confocal microscopy on the encapsulated spheroids to study spheroid growth and various cell-matrix interactions.

Spheroid-based drug screening platforms to study chemotherapeutic effects are increasingly sought after due to the emphasis on modulating the tumor microenvironment upon spheroid encapsulation in biomaterials replicating native tissue. Here we developed a method for multicellular tumor spheroid preparation and subsequent encapsulation and imaging in a 3D hydrogel. The spheroids are prepared in microwell molds (Figure 3A,B), which result in spheroids with spherical shapes and...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Tumor Spheroid Fabrication and Encapsulation in Polyethylene Glycol Hydrogels for Studying Spheroid-Matrix Interactions at JoVE.com

Author Spotlight: In Vitro Hydrogel Model for Glioblastoma Microenvironment Study

Here, we present a protocol that enables fast, robust, and cheap fabrication of tumor spheroids followed by hydrogel encapsulation. It is widely applicable as it does not require specialized equipment. It would be particularly useful for exploring spheroid-matrix interactions and building in vitro tissue physiology or pathology models.

Tumor Spheroid Fabrication and Encapsulation in Polyethylene Glycol Hydrogels for Studying Spheroid-Matrix Interactions

Three-dimensional (3D) encapsulation of spheroids is crucial to adequately replicate the tumor microenvironment for optimal cell growth.  Here, we ...

tumor-spheroid-fabrication-encapsulation-polyethylene-glycol

Research

JoVE Journal

Bioengineering

1.2K Views.  Saint Louis University. Here, we present a protocol that enables fast, robust, and cheap fabrication of tumor spheroids followed by hydrogel encapsulation. It is widely applicable as it does not require specialized equipment. It would be particularly useful for exploring spheroid-matrix interactions and building in vitro tissue physiology or pathology models. 

Video: Author Spotlight: In Vitro Hydrogel Model for Glioblastoma Microenvironment Study

Fabrication of Micropatterned Hydrogels for Neural Culture Systems using Dynamic Mask Projection Photolithography

Increasingly, patterned cell culture environments are becoming a relevant technique to study cellular characteristics, and many researchers believe in the need for 3D environments to represent in vitro experiments which better mimic in vivo qualities 1-3. Studies in fields such as cancer research 4, neural engineering 5, cardiac physiology 6, and cell-matrix interaction7,8have shown cell behavior differs substantially between traditional monolayer cultures and 3D constructs.
Hydrogels are used as 3D environments because of their variety, versatility and ability to tailor molecular composition through functionalization 9-12. Numerous techniques exist for creation of constructs as cell-supportive matrices, including electrospinning13, elastomer stamps14, inkjet printing15, additive photopatterning16, static photomask projection-lithography17, and dynamic mask microstereolithography18. Unfortunately, these methods involve multiple production steps and/or equipment not readily adaptable to conventional cell and tissue culture methods. The technique employed in this protocol adapts the latter two methods, using a digital micromirror device (DMD) to create dynamic photomasks for crosslinking geometrically specific poly-(ethylene glycol) (PEG) hydrogels, induced through UV initiated free radical polymerization. The resulting "2.5D" structures provide a constrained 3D environment for neural growth. We employ a dual-hydrogel approach, where PEG serves as a cell-restrictive region supplying structure to an otherwise shapeless but cell-permissive self-assembling gel made from either Puramatrix or agarose. The process is a quick simple one step fabrication which is highly reproducible and easily adapted for use with conventional cell culture methods and substrates.
Whole tissue explants, such as embryonic dorsal root ganglia (DRG), can be incorporated into the dual hydrogel constructs for experimental assays such as neurite outgrowth. Additionally, dissociated cells can be encapsulated in the photocrosslinkable or self polymerizing hydrogel, or selectively adhered to the permeable support membrane using cell-restrictive photopatterning. Using the DMD, we created hydrogel constructs up to ~1mm thick, but thin film (&lt;200 &mu;m) PEG structures were limited by oxygen quenching of the free radical polymerization reaction. We subsequently developed a technique utilizing a layer of oil above the polymerization liquid which allowed thin PEG structure polymerization.
In this protocol, we describe the expeditious creation of 3D hydrogel systems for production of microfabricated neural cell and tissue cultures. The dual hydrogel constructs demonstrated herein represent versatile in vitro models that may prove useful for studies in neuroscience involving cell survival, migration, and/or neurite growth and guidance. Moreover, as the protocol can work for many types of hydrogels and cells, the potential applications are both varied and vast.

Simple techniques are described for the rapid production of microfabricated neural culture systems using a digital micromirror device for dynamic mask projection lithography on regular cell culture substrates. These culture systems may be more representative of natural biological architecture, and the techniques described could be adapted for numerous applications.

Increasingly, patterned cell culture environments are becoming a relevant technique to study cellular characteristics, and many researchers believe in the ...

A Method for Ovarian Follicle Encapsulation and Culture in a Proteolytically Degradable 3 Dimensional System

The ovarian follicle is the functional unit of the ovary that secretes sex hormones and supports oocyte maturation. In vitro follicle techniques provide a tool to model follicle development in order to investigate basic biology, and are further being developed as a technique to preserve fertility in the clinic1-4. Our in vitro culture system employs hydrogels in order to mimic the native ovarian environment by maintaining the 3D follicular architecture, cell-cell interactions and paracrine signaling that direct follicle development 5. Previously, follicles were successfully cultured in alginate, an inert algae-derived polysaccharide that undergoes gelation with calcium ions6-8. Alginate hydrogels formed at a concentration of 0.25% w/v were the most permissive for follicle culture, and retained the highest developmental competence 9. Alginate hydrogels are not degradable, thus an increase in the follicle diameter results in a compressive force on the follicle that can impact follicle growth10. We subsequently developed a culture system based on a fibrin-alginate interpenetrating network (FA-IPN), in which a mixture of fibrin and alginate are gelled simultaneously. This combination provides a dynamic mechanical environment because both components contribute to matrix rigidity initially; however, proteases secreted by the growing follicle degrade fibrin in the matrix leaving only alginate to provide support. With the IPN, the alginate content can be reduced below 0.25%, which is not possible with alginate alone 5. Thus, as the follicle expands, it will experience a reduced compressive force due to the reduced solids content. Herein, we describe an encapsulation method and an in vitro culture system for ovarian follicles within a FA-IPN. The dynamic mechanical environment mimics the natural ovarian environment in which small follicles reside in a rigid cortex and move to a more permissive medulla as they increase in size11. The degradable component may be particularly critical for clinical translation in order to support the greater than 106-fold increase in volume that human follicles normally undergo in vivo .

A new method for ovarian follicle encapsulation in a 3D fibrin-alginate interpenetrating network is described. This system combines structural support with proteolytic degradation to support the development of immature follicles to produce mature oocytes. This method may be applied to culture cell aggregates to maintain cell-cell contacts without limiting expansion.

The ovarian follicle is the functional unit of the ovary that secretes sex hormones and supports oocyte maturation. In vitro  follicle techniques provide ...

Endothelialized Microfluidics for Studying Microvascular Interactions in Hematologic Diseases

Advances in microfabrication techniques have enabled the production of inexpensive and reproducible microfluidic systems for conducting biological and biochemical experiments at the micro- and nanoscales 1,2. In addition, microfluidics have also been specifically used to quantitatively analyze hematologic and microvascular processes, because of their ability to easily control the dynamic fluidic environment and biological conditions3-6. As such, researchers have more recently used microfluidic systems to study blood cell deformability, blood cell aggregation, microvascular blood flow, and blood cell-endothelial cell interactions6-13.However, these microfluidic systems either did not include cultured endothelial cells or were larger than the sizescale relevant to microvascular pathologic processes. A microfluidic platform with cultured endothelial cells that accurately recapitulates the cellular, physical, and hemodynamic environment of the microcirculation is needed to further our understanding of the underlying biophysical pathophysiology of hematologic diseases that involve the microvasculature.
Here, we report a method to create an "endothelialized" in vitro model of the microvasculature, using a simple, single mask microfabrication process in conjunction with standard endothelial cell culture techniques, to study pathologic biophysical microvascular interactions that occur in hematologic disease. This "microvasculature-on-a-chip" provides the researcher with a robust assay that tightly controls biological as well as biophysical conditions and is operated using a standard syringe pump and brightfield/fluorescence microscopy. Parameters such as microcirculatory hemodynamic conditions, endothelial cell type, blood cell type(s) and concentration(s), drug/inhibitory concentration etc., can all be easily controlled. As such, our microsystem provides a method to quantitatively investigate disease processes in which microvascular flow is impaired due to alterations in cell adhesion, aggregation, and deformability, a capability unavailable with existing assays.

A method to culture an endothelial cell monolayer throughout the entire inner 3D surface of a microfluidic device with microvascular-sized channels (&lt;30 &mu;m) is described. This in vitro microvasculature model enables the study of biophysical interactions between blood cells, endothelial cells, and soluble factors in hematologic diseases.

Advances in  microfabrication techniques have enabled the production of inexpensive and  reproducible microfluidic systems for conducting biological and ...

Determination of the Transport Rate of Xenobiotics and Nanomaterials Across the Placenta using the ex vivo Human Placental Perfusion Model

Decades ago the human placenta was thought to be an impenetrable barrier between mother and unborn child. However, the discovery of thalidomide-induced birth defects and many later studies afterwards proved the opposite. Today several harmful xenobiotics like nicotine, heroin, methadone or drugs as well as environmental pollutants were described to overcome this barrier. With the growing use of nanotechnology, the placenta is likely to come into contact with novel nanoparticles either accidentally through exposure or intentionally in the case of potential nanomedical applications. Data from animal experiments cannot be extrapolated to humans because the placenta is the most species-specific mammalian organ 1. Therefore, the ex vivo dual recirculating human placental perfusion, developed by Panigel et al. in 1967 2 and continuously modified by Schneider et al. in 1972 3, can serve as an excellent model to study the transfer of xenobiotics or particles.
Here, we focus on the ex vivo dual recirculating human placental perfusion protocol and its further development to acquire reproducible results.
The placentae were obtained after informed consent of the mothers from uncomplicated term pregnancies undergoing caesarean delivery. The fetal and maternal vessels of an intact cotyledon were cannulated and perfused at least for five hours. As a model particle fluorescently labelled polystyrene particles with sizes of 80 and 500 nm in diameter were added to the maternal circuit. The 80 nm particles were able to cross the placental barrier and provide a perfect example for a substance which is transferred across the placenta to the fetus while the 500 nm particles were retained in the placental tissue or maternal circuit. The ex vivo human placental perfusion model is one of few models providing reliable information about the transport behavior of xenobiotics at an important tissue barrier which delivers predictive and clinical relevant data.

Determination of the Transport Rate of Xenobiotics and Nanomaterials Across the Placenta using the ex vivo Human Placental Perfusion Model

The ex vivo dual recirculating human placental perfusion model can be used to investigate the transfer of xenobiotics and nanoparticles across the human placenta. In this video protocol we describe the equipment and techniques required for a successful execution of a placenta perfusion.

Decades ago the human placenta was thought to be an impenetrable barrier between mother and unborn child. However, the discovery of thalidomide-induced ...

Characteristics of Precipitation-formed Polyethylene Glycol Microgels Are Controlled by Molecular Weight of Reactants

This work describes the formation of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) microgels via a photopolymerized precipitation reaction. Precipitation reactions offer several advantages over traditional microsphere fabrication techniques. Contrary to emulsion, suspension, and dispersion techniques, microgels formed by precipitation are of uniform shape and size, i.e.&#160;low polydispersity index, without the use of organic solvents or stabilizers. The mild conditions of the precipitation reaction, customizable properties of the microgels, and low viscosity for injections make them applicable for in vivo purposes. Unlike other fabrication techniques, microgel characteristics can be modified by changing the starting polymer molecular weight. Increasing the starting PEG molecular weight increased microgel diameter and swelling ratio. Further modifications are suggested such as encapsulating molecules during microgel crosslinking. Simple adaptations to the PEG microgel building blocks are explored for future applications of microgels as drug delivery vehicles and tissue engineering scaffolds.

This work describes the formation of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) microgels via a photopolymerized precipitation reaction. Increasing the PEG molecular weight increased microgel diameter and swelling ratio. Simple adaptations to the PEG microgel precipitation reaction are explored for future applications of microgels as drug delivery vehicles and tissue engineering scaffolds.

This work describes the formation of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) microgels via a photopolymerized precipitation reaction. Precipitation reactions offer ...

Sandwich-like Microenvironments to Harness Cell/Material Interactions

Cell culture has been traditionally carried out on bi-dimensional (2D) substrates where cells adhere using ventral receptors to the biomaterial surface. However in vivo, most of the cells are completely surrounded by the extracellular matrix (ECM), resulting in a three-dimensional (3D) distribution of receptors. This may trigger differences in the outside-in signaling pathways and thus in cell behavior.
This article shows that stimulating the dorsal receptors of cells already adhered to a 2D substrate by overlaying a film of a new material (a sandwich-like culture) triggers important changes with respect to standard 2D cultures. Furthermore, the simultaneous excitation of ventral and dorsal receptors shifts cell behavior closer to that found in 3D environments. Additionally, due to the nature of the system, a sandwich-like culture is a versatile tool that allows the study of different parameters in cell/material interactions, e.g., topography, stiffness and different protein coatings at both the ventral and dorsal sides. Finally, since sandwich-like cultures are based on 2D substrates, several analysis procedures already developed for standard 2D cultures can be used normally, overcoming more complex procedures needed for 3D systems.

The following protocol describes the procedure to assemble sandwich-like cultures to be used as an intermediate stage between bi-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) cellular environments. The engineered systems can have applications in microscopy, biomechanics, biochemistry and cell biology assays.

Cell culture has been traditionally carried out on bi-dimensional (2D) substrates where cells adhere using ventral receptors to the biomaterial surface. ...

Fabrication of Inverted Colloidal Crystal Poly(ethylene glycol) Scaffold: A Three-dimensional Cell Culture Platform for Liver Tissue Engineering

The ability to maintain hepatocyte function in vitro, for the purpose of testing xenobiotics&#39; cytotoxicity, studying virus infection and developing drugs targeted at the liver, requires a platform in which cells receive proper biochemical and mechanical cues. Recent liver tissue engineering systems have employed three-dimensional (3D) scaffolds composed of synthetic or natural hydrogels, given their high water retention and their ability to provide the mechanical stimuli needed by the cells. There has been growing interest in the inverted colloidal crystal (ICC) scaffold, a recent development, which allows high spatial organization, homotypic and heterotypic cell interaction, as well as cell-extracellular matrix (ECM) interaction. Herein, we describe a protocol to fabricate the ICC scaffold using poly (ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA) and the particle leaching method. Briefly, a lattice is made from microsphere particles, after which a pre-polymer solution is added, properly polymerized, and the particles are then removed, or leached, using an organic solvent (e.g., tetrahydrofuran). The dissolution of the lattice results in a highly porous scaffold with controlled pore sizes and interconnectivities that allow media to reach cells more easily. This unique structure allows high surface area for the cells to adhere to as well as easy communication between pores, and the ability to coat the PEGDA ICC scaffold with proteins also shows a marked effect on cell performance. We analyze the morphology of the scaffold as well as the hepatocarcinoma cell (Huh-7.5) behavior in terms of viability and function to explore the effect of ICC structure and ECM coatings. Overall, this paper provides a detailed protocol of an emerging scaffold that has wide applications in tissue engineering, especially liver tissue engineering.

Fabrication of Inverted Colloidal Crystal Polyethylene glycol Scaffold: A Three-dimensional Cell Culture Platform for Liver Tissue Engineering

This manuscript presents a detailed protocol for the fabrication of an emerging three-dimensional hepatocyte culture platform, the inverted colloidal crystal scaffold, and the concomitant techniques to assess hepatocyte behavior. The size-controllable pores, interconnectivity and ability to conjugate extracellular matrix proteins to the poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) scaffold enhance Huh-7.5 cell performance.

The ability to maintain hepatocyte function in vitro, for the purpose of testing xenobiotics&#39; cytotoxicity, studying virus infection and developing ...

Preparation and Characterization of Novel HDL-mimicking Nanoparticles for Nerve Growth Factor Encapsulation

The objective of this article is to introduce preparation and characterization methods for nerve growth factor (NGF)-loaded, high-density, lipoprotein (HDL)-mimicking nanoparticles (NPs). HDLs are endogenous NPs and have been explored as vehicles for the delivery of therapeutic agents. Various methods have been developed to prepare HDL-mimicking NPs. However, they are generally complicated, time consuming, and difficult for industrial scale-up. In this study, one-step homogenization was used to mix the excipients and form the prototype NPs. NGF is a water-soluble protein of 26 kDa. To facilitate the encapsulation of NGF into the lipid environment of HDL-mimicking NPs, protamine USP was used to form an ion-pair complex with NGF to neutralize the charges on the NGF surface. The NGF/protamine complex was then introduced into the prototype NPs. Apolipoprotein A-I was finally coated on the surface of the NPs. NGF HDL-mimicking NPs showed preferable properties in terms of particle size, size distribution, entrapment efficiency, in vitro release, bioactivity, and biodistribution. With the careful design and exploration of homogenization in HDL-mimicking NPs, the procedure was greatly simplified, and the NPs were made scalable. Moreover, various challenges, such as separating unloaded NGF from the NPs, conducting reliable in vitro release studies, and measuring the bioactivity of the NPs, were overcome.

Simple homogenization was used to prepare novel, high-density, lipoprotein-mimicking nanoparticles to encapsulate nerve growth factor. Challenges, detailed protocols for nanoparticle preparation, in vitro characterization, and in vivo studies are described in this article.

The objective of this article is to introduce preparation and characterization methods for nerve growth factor (NGF)-loaded, high-density, lipoprotein ...

Production of Elastin-like Protein Hydrogels for Encapsulation and Immunostaining of Cells in 3D

Two-dimensional (2D) tissue culture techniques have been essential for our understanding of fundamental cell biology. However, traditional 2D tissue culture systems lack a three-dimensional (3D) matrix, resulting in a significant disconnect between results collected in vitro and in vivo. To address this limitation, researchers have engineered 3D hydrogel tissue culture platforms that can mimic the biochemical and biophysical properties of the in vivo cell microenvironment. This research has motivated the need to develop material platforms that support 3D cell encapsulation and downstream biochemical assays. Recombinant protein engineering offers a unique toolset for 3D hydrogel material design and development by allowing for the specific control of protein sequence and therefore, by extension, the potential mechanical and biochemical properties of the resultant matrix. Here, we present a protocol for the expression of recombinantly-derived elastin-like protein (ELP), which can be used to form hydrogels with independently tunable mechanical properties and cell-adhesive ligand concentration. We further present a methodology for cell encapsulation within ELP hydrogels and subsequent immunofluorescent staining of embedded cells for downstream analysis and quantification.

Recombinant protein-engineered hydrogels are advantageous for 3D cell culture as they allow for complete tunability of the polymer backbone and therefore, the cell microenvironment. Here, we describe the process of recombinant elastin-like protein purification and its application in 3D hydrogel cell encapsulation.

Two-dimensional (2D) tissue culture techniques have been essential for our understanding of fundamental cell biology. However, traditional 2D tissue ...

Flash NanoPrecipitation for the Encapsulation of Hydrophobic and Hydrophilic Compounds in Polymeric Nanoparticles

The formulation of a therapeutic compound into nanoparticles (NPs) can impart unique properties. For poorly water-soluble drugs, NP formulations can improve bioavailability and modify drug distribution within the body. For hydrophilic drugs like peptides or proteins, encapsulation within NPs can also provide protection from natural clearance mechanisms. There are few techniques for the production of polymeric NPs that are scalable. Flash NanoPrecipitation (FNP) is a process that uses engineered mixing geometries to produce NPs with narrow size distributions and tunable sizes between 30 and 400 nm. This protocol provides instructions on the laboratory-scale production of core-shell polymeric nanoparticles of a target size using FNP. The protocol can be implemented to encapsulate either hydrophilic or hydrophobic compounds with only minor modifications. The technique can be readily employed in the laboratory at milligram scale to screen formulations. Lead hits can directly be scaled up to gram- and kilogram-scale. As a continuous process, scale-up involves longer mixing process run time rather than translation to new process vessels. NPs produced by FNP are highly loaded with therapeutic, feature a dense stabilizing polymer brush, and have a size reproducibility of &#177; 6%.

Flash NanoPrecipitation (FNP) is a scalable approach to produce polymeric core-shell nanoparticles. Lab-scale formulations for the encapsulation of hydrophobic or hydrophilic therapeutics are described.

The formulation of a therapeutic compound into nanoparticles (NPs) can impart unique properties. For poorly water-soluble drugs, NP formulations can ...