Name: direct linear transformation for the measurement of in-situ peripheral nerve strain during stretching
Uploaded: 2024-01-12T13:30:00.000+00:00
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Description: Read this Scientific Article Protocol about Direct Linear Transformation for the Measurement of In-Situ Peripheral Nerve Strain During Stretching at JoVE.com

This research was supported by funding from the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development of the National Institutes of Health under Award Number R15HD093024 and R01HD104910A and NSF CAREER Award Number 1752513.

Biomechanical Analysis of Peripheral Nerves Using DLT-Calibrated Stereo-Imaging

<ol>
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The authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose.

Studies reporting biomechanical properties of peripheral nerves (PNs) because of stretch injury vary, and that variation can be attributed to testing methodologies such as testing equipment and elongation analysis5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,<sup class="xr...

Peripheral nerves (PNs) undergo stretch during development, growth, normal joint movement, injury, and surgery1. PNs display viscoelastic properties to protect the nerve during regular movements2,3 and maintain the structural health of its nerve fibers2. Because PN response to mechanical stretch has been shown to depend on the type of nerve fiber damage4, injuries to adjacent connective tissues2,4, and testing approaches (i.e., loading rate or direction)5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14, it is essential to distinguish the biomechanical responses of PNs during normal range of motion versus non-physiological range at both slow- and rapid-stretch rates. This can further the understanding of the PN injury mechanism in response to stretch and aid in timely and optimized intervention1,4,15,16. There has been a growing trend in physical therapy to evaluate and intervene based on the relationship between nerve physiology and biomechanics17. By understanding the differences in PN biomechanics at various applied loads, physical therapists can be better prepared to modify current interventions17.
Available biomechanical data of PNs in response to stretch remains variable and can be attributed to testing equipment and procedures and differences in elongation data analysis5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,16. Furthermore, measuring three-dimensional (3D) in-situ nerve displacement remains poorly described in the currently available literature. Previous studies have used stereo-imaging techniques to maximize the accuracy of 3D reconstruction of tissue displacement of facet joint capsules18,19. The direct linear transformation (DLT) technique enables the conversion of two or more two-dimensional (2D) views to 3D real-world coordinates (i.e., in mm)20,21,22. DLT provides a high-accuracy calibration method for stereo-imaging camera systems because it enables precise reconstruction of 3D positions, accounting for lens distortion, camera parameters, and image coordinates, and permits flexibility in stereo-imaging camera setup20,21,22. Studies using DLT-calibrated stereo-imaging camera systems are typically used to study locomotion and gait analysis22,23. This protocol aims to offer a detailed methodology to determine the in-situ strain of PNs at varying degrees of stretch using a DLT-calibrated stereo-imaging camera system and an open-source tracking software22.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Clear Acrylic Plexiglass Square Sheet</td><td>W W Grainger Inc</td><td>BULKPSACR9</td><td>Construct three-dimensional control volume</td></tr><tr><td>Stereo-imaging camera system - ZED Mini Stereo Camera</td><td>StereoLabs Inc.</td><td>N/A</td><td>N/A</td></tr><tr><td>Imaging Software - ZED SDK</td><td>StereoLabs Inc.</td><td>N/A</td><td>N/A</td></tr><tr><td>Maintence Software - CUDA 12</td><td>StereoLabs Inc.</td><td>N/A</td><td>Download to run ZED SDK&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>Camera stand - Cast Iron Triangular Support Stand with Rod</td><td>Telrose VWR Choice</td><td>76293-346</td><td>N/A</td></tr><tr><td>MicroSribe G2 Digitizer with Immersion Foot Pedal</td><td>SUMMIT Technology Group</td><td>N/A</td><td>N/A</td></tr><tr><td>Proramming Software - MATLAB&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Mathworks</td><td>N/A</td><td>version 2019A or newer</td></tr><tr><td>DLTcal5.m</td><td>Hedrick lab</td><td>N/A</td><td>Open Source</td></tr><tr><td>DLTdv7.m</td><td>Hedrick lab</td><td>N/A</td><td>Open Source</td></tr></tbody></table>

direct linear transformation for the measurement of in-situ peripheral nerve strain during stretching

Peripheral nerves undergo physiological and non-physiological stretch during development, normal joint movement, injury, and more recently while undergoing surgical repair. Understanding the biomechanical response of peripheral nerves to stretch is critical to the understanding of their response to different loading conditions and thus, to optimizing treatment strategies and surgical interventions. This protocol describes in detail the calibration process of the stereo-imaging camera system via direct linear transformation and the tracking of the three-dimensional in-situ tissue displacement of peripheral nerves during stretch, obtained from three-dimensional coordinates of the video files captured by the calibrated stereo-imaging camera system.
From the obtained three-dimensional coordinates, the nerve length, change in the nerve length, and percent strain with respect to time can be calculated for a stretched peripheral nerve. Using a stereo-imaging camera system provides a non-invasive method for capturing three-dimensional displacements of peripheral nerves when stretched. Direct linear transformation enables three-dimensional reconstructions of peripheral nerve length during stretch to measure strain. Currently, no methodology exists to study the in-situ strain of stretched peripheral nerves using a stereo-imaging camera system calibrated via direct linear transformation. Capturing the in-situ strain of peripheral nerves when stretched can not only aid clinicians in understanding underlying injury mechanisms of nerve damage when overstretched but also help optimize treatment strategies that rely on stretch-induced interventions. The methodology described in the paper has the potential to enhance our understanding of peripheral nerve biomechanics in response to stretch to improve patient outcomes in the field of nerve injury management and rehabilitation.

Using the described methodology, various output files are obtained. The DLTdv7.m *_xyzpts.csv (Supplemental File 12) contains the (x, y, z) coordinates in millimeters of each tracked point at each time frame that is further used to calculate the length, change in length, and strain of the stretched PN. Representative length-time, change in length-time, and strain-time plots of a stretched PN are shown in Figure 10. The stretched PN had an insertion marker, four markers along...

Read this Scientific Article Protocol about Direct Linear Transformation for the Measurement of In-Situ Peripheral Nerve Strain During Stretching at JoVE.com

Stereo-Imaging System DLT Calibration to Capture 3D In Situ Displacements of Stretched Peripheral Nerves

This protocol implements a stereo-imaging camera system calibrated using direct linear transformation to capture three-dimensional in-situ displacements of stretched peripheral nerves. By capturing these displacements, strain induced at varying degrees of stretch can be determined informing the stretch injury thresholds that can advance the science of stretch-dependent nerve repair.

Direct Linear Transformation for the Measurement of In-Situ Peripheral Nerve Strain During Stretching

Peripheral nerves undergo physiological and non-physiological stretch during development, normal joint movement, injury, and more recently while ...

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317 Views.  Drexel University. This protocol implements a stereo-imaging camera system calibrated using direct linear transformation to capture three-dimensional in-situ displacements of stretched peripheral nerves. By capturing these displacements, strain induced at varying degrees of stretch can be determined informing the stretch injury thresholds that can advance the science of stretch-dependent nerve repair. 

Video: Stereo-Imaging System DLT Calibration to Capture 3D In Situ Displacements of Stretched Peripheral Nerves

High-resolution Fiber-optic Microendoscopy for in situ Cellular Imaging

Many biological and clinical studies require the longitudinal study and analysis of morphology and function with cellular level resolution. Traditionally, multiple experiments are run in parallel, with individual samples removed from the study at sequential time points for evaluation by light microscopy. Several intravital techniques have been developed, with confocal, multiphoton, and second harmonic microscopy all demonstrating their ability to be used for imaging in situ 1. With these systems, however, the required infrastructure is complex and expensive, involving scanning laser systems and complex light sources. Here we present a protocol for the design and assembly of a high-resolution microendoscope which can be built in a day using off-the-shelf components for under US$5,000. The platform offers flexibility in terms of image resolution, field-of-view, and operating wavelength, and we describe how these parameters can be easily modified to meet the specific needs of the end user.
We and others have explored the use of the high-resolution microendoscope (HRME) in in vitro cell culture 2-5, in excised 6 and living animal tissues 2,5, and in human tissues in vivo 2,7. Users have reported the use of several different fluorescent contrast agents, including proflavine 2-4, benzoporphyrin-derivative monoacid ring A (BPD-MA) 5, and fluoroscein 6,7, all of which have received full, or investigational approval from the FDA for use in human subjects. High-resolution microendoscopy, in the form described here, may appeal to a wide range of researchers working in the basic and clinical sciences. The technique offers an effective and economical approach which complements traditional benchtop microscopy, by enabling the user to perform high-resolution, longitudinal imaging in situ.

High-resolution Fiber-optic Microendoscopy for in situ Cellular Imaging

In many biological and clinical situations it is advantageous to study cellular processes as they evolve in their native microenvironment. Here we describe the assembly and use of a low-cost fiber-optic microscope which can provide real time imaging in cell culture, animal studies, and clinical patient studies.

Many biological and clinical studies require the longitudinal study and analysis of morphology and function with cellular level resolution.  ...

Fluorescent Nanoparticles for the Measurement of Ion Concentration in Biological Systems

Tightly regulated ion homeostasis throughout the body is necessary for the prevention of such debilitating states as dehydration.1 In contrast, rapid ion fluxes at the cellular level are required for initiating action potentials in excitable cells.2 Sodium regulation plays an important role in both of these cases; however, no method currently exists for continuously monitoring sodium levels in vivo 3 and intracellular sodium probes 4 do not provide similar detailed results as calcium probes. In an effort to fill both of these voids, fluorescent nanosensors have been developed that can monitor sodium concentrations in vitro and in vivo.5,6 These sensors are based on ion-selective optode technology and consist of plasticized polymeric particles in which sodium specific recognition elements, pH-sensitive fluorophores, and additives are embedded.7-9 Mechanistically, the sodium recognition element extracts sodium into the sensor. 10 This extraction causes the pH-sensitive fluorophore to release a hydrogen ion to maintain charge neutrality within the sensor which causes a change in fluorescence. The sodium sensors are reversible and selective for sodium over potassium even at high intracellular concentrations.6 They are approximately 120 nm in diameter and are coated with polyethylene glycol to impart biocompatibility. Using microinjection techniques, the sensors can be delivered into the cytoplasm of cells where they have been shown to monitor the temporal and spatial sodium dynamics of beating cardiac myocytes.11 Additionally, they have also tracked real-time changes in sodium concentrations in vivo when injected subcutaneously into mice.3 Herein, we explain in detail and demonstrate the methodology for fabricating fluorescent sodium nanosensors and briefly demonstrate the biological applications our lab uses the nanosensors for: the microinjection of the sensors into cells; and the subcutaneous injection of the sensors into mice.

Fluorescent nanoparticles produced in our lab are used for imaging ion concentrations and ion fluxes in biological systems such as cells during signaling and interstitial fluid during physiological homeostasis.

Tightly regulated ion homeostasis throughout the body is necessary for the prevention of such debilitating states as dehydration.1 In contrast, rapid ion ...

Measurement of Tension Release During Laser Induced Axon Lesion to Evaluate Axonal Adhesion to the Substrate at Piconewton and Millisecond Resolution

The formation of functional connections in a developing neuronal network is influenced by extrinsic cues. The neurite growth of developing neurons is subject to chemical and mechanical signals, and the mechanisms by which it senses and responds to mechanical signals are poorly understood. Elucidating the role of forces in cell maturation will enable the design of scaffolds that can promote cell adhesion and cytoskeletal coupling to the substrate, and therefore improve the capacity of different neuronal types to regenerate after injury.
Here, we describe a method to apply simultaneous force spectroscopy measurements during laser induced cell lesion. We measure tension release in the partially lesioned axon by simultaneous interferometric tracking of an optically trapped probe adhered to the membrane of the axon. Our experimental protocol detects the tension release with piconewton sensitivity, and the dynamic of the tension release at millisecond time resolution. Therefore, it offers a high-resolution method to study how the mechanical coupling between cells and substrates can be modulated by pharmacological treatment and/or by distinct mechanical properties of the substrate.

We measured the tension release in an axon that was partially lesioned with a laser dissector by simultaneous force spectroscopy measurement performed on an optically-trapped probe adhered to the membrane of the axon. The developed experimental protocol evaluates the axon adhesion to the culture substrate.

The formation of functional connections in a developing neuronal network is influenced by extrinsic cues. The neurite growth of developing neurons is ...

A Novel Stretching Platform for Applications in Cell and Tissue Mechanobiology

Tools that allow the application of mechanical forces to cells and tissues or that can quantify the mechanical properties of biological tissues have contributed dramatically to the understanding of basic mechanobiology. These techniques have been extensively used to demonstrate how the onset and progression of various diseases are heavily influenced by mechanical cues. This article presents a multi-functional biaxial stretching (BAXS) platform that can either mechanically stimulate single cells or quantify the mechanical stiffness of tissues. The BAXS platform consists of four voice coil motors that can be controlled independently. Single cells can be cultured on a flexible substrate that can be attached to the motors allowing one to expose the cells to complex, dynamic, and spatially varying strain fields. Conversely, by incorporating a force load cell, one can also quantify the mechanical properties of primary tissues as they are exposed to deformation cycles. In both cases, a proper set of clamps must be designed and mounted to the BAXS platform motors in order to firmly hold the flexible substrate or the tissue of interest. The BAXS platform can be mounted on an inverted microscope to perform simultaneous transmitted light and/or fluorescence imaging to examine the structural or biochemical response of the sample during stretching experiments. This article provides experimental details of the design and usage of the BAXS platform and presents results for single cell and whole tissue studies. The BAXS platform was used to measure the deformation of nuclei in single mouse myoblast cells in response to substrate strain and to measure the stiffness of isolated mouse aortas. The BAXS platform is a versatile tool that can be combined with various optical microscopies in order to provide novel mechanobiological insights at the sub-cellular, cellular and whole tissue levels.

We present in this article a novel stretching platform that can be used to investigate single cell responses to complex anisotropic biaxial mechanical deformation and quantify the mechanical properties of biological tissues.

Tools that allow the application of mechanical forces to cells and tissues or that can quantify the mechanical properties of biological tissues have ...

Live Cell Imaging during Mechanical Stretch

There is currently a significant interest in understanding how cells and tissues respond to mechanical stimuli, but current approaches are limited in their capability for measuring responses in real time in live cells or viable tissue. A protocol was developed with the use of a cell actuator to distend live cells grown on or tissues attached to an elastic substrate while imaging with confocal and atomic force microscopy (AFM). Preliminary studies show that tonic stretching of human bronchial epithelial cells caused a significant increase in the production of mitochondrial superoxide. Moreover, using this protocol, alveolar epithelial cells were stretched and imaged, which showed direct damage to the epithelial cells by overdistention simulating one form of lung injury in vitro. A protocol to conduct AFM nano-indentation on stretched cells is also provided.

A novel imaging protocol was developed using a custom motor-driven mechanical actuator to allow the measurement of real time responses to mechanical strain in live cells. Relevant to mechanobiology, the system can apply strains up to 20% while allowing near real-time imaging with confocal or atomic force microscopy.

There is currently a significant interest in understanding how cells and tissues respond to mechanical stimuli, but current approaches are limited in ...

Production of a Strain-Measuring Device with an Improved 3D Printer

A traditional strain measurement sensor needs to be electrified and is susceptible to electromagnetic interference. In order to solve the fluctuations in the analog electrical signal in a traditional strain gauge operation, a new strain measurement method is presented here. It uses a photographic technique to display the strain change by amplifying the change of the pointer displacement of the mechanism. A visual polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) lens with a focal length of 7.16 mm was added to a smartphone camera to generate a lens group acting as a microscope to capture images. It had an equivalent focal length of 5.74 mm. Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and nylon amplifiers were used to test the influence of different materials on the sensor performance. The production of the amplifiers and PDMS lens is based on improved 3D printing technology. The data obtained were compared with the results from finite element analysis (FEA) to verify their validity. The sensitivity of the ABS amplifier was 36.03 &plusmn; 1.34 &#181;&epsilon;/&#181;m, and the sensitivity of the nylon amplifier was 36.55 &plusmn; 0.53 &#181;&epsilon;/&#181;m.

This work presents a strain measurement sensor consisting of an amplification mechanism and a polydimethylsiloxane microscope manufactured using an improved 3D printer.

A traditional strain measurement sensor needs to be electrified and is susceptible to electromagnetic interference. In order to solve the fluctuations in ...

Engineering

In Vivo Electrophysiological Measurements on Mouse Sciatic Nerves

Electrophysiological studies allow a rational classification of various neuromuscular diseases and are of help, together with neuropathological techniques, in the understanding of the underlying pathophysiology1. Here we describe a method to perform electrophysiological studies on mouse sciatic nerves in vivo.
The animals are anesthetized with isoflurane in order to ensure analgesia for the tested mice and undisturbed working environment during the measurements that take about 30 min/animal. A constant body temperature of 37 &#176;C is maintained by a heating plate and continuously measured by a rectal thermo probe2. Additionally, an electrocardiogram (ECG) is routinely recorded during the measurements in order to continuously monitor the physiological state of the investigated animals.
Electrophysiological recordings are performed on the sciatic nerve, the largest nerve of the peripheral nervous system (PNS), supplying the mouse hind limb with both motoric and sensory fiber tracts. In our protocol, sciatic nerves remain in situ and therefore do not have to be extracted or exposed, allowing measurements without any adverse nerve irritations along with actual recordings. Using appropriate needle electrodes3 we perform both proximal and distal nerve stimulations, registering the transmitted potentials with sensing electrodes at gastrocnemius muscles. After data processing, reliable and highly consistent values for the nerve conduction velocity (NCV) and the compound motor action potential (CMAP), the key parameters for quantification of gross peripheral nerve functioning, can be achieved.

In Vivo Electrophysiological Measurements on Mouse Sciatic Nerves

Measurements of nerve conduction properties in vivo exemplify a powerful tool to characterize various animal models of neuromuscular diseases. Here, we present an easy and reliable protocol by which electrophysiological analysis on sciatic nerves of anesthetized mice can be performed.

Electrophysiological studies allow a rational classification of various neuromuscular diseases and are of help, together with neuropathological ...

Neuroscience

Measuring Local Tissue Strains in Tendons via Open-Source Digital Image Correlation

There is considerable scientific interest in understanding the strains that tendon cells experience in situ and how these strains influence tissue remodeling. Based on this interest, several analytical techniques have been developed to measure local tissue strains within tendon explants during loading. However, in several cases, the accuracy and sensitivity of these techniques have not been reported, and none of the algorithms are publicly available. This has made it difficult for the more widespread measurement of local tissue strains in tendon explants. Therefore, the objective of this paper was to create a validated analysis tool for measuring local tissue strains in tendon explants that is readily available and easy to use. Specifically, a publicly available augmented-Lagrangian digital image correlation (ALDIC) algorithm was adapted for measuring 2D strains by tracking the displacements of cell nuclei within mouse Achilles tendons under uniaxial tension. Additionally, the accuracy of the calculated strains was validated by analyzing digitally transformed images, as well as by comparing the strains with values determined from an independent technique (i.e., photobleached lines). Finally, a technique was incorporated into the algorithm to reconstruct the reference image using the calculated displacement field, which can be used to assess the accuracy of the algorithm in the absence of known strain values or a secondary measurement technique. The algorithm is capable of measuring strains up to 0.1 with an accuracy of 0.00015. The technique for comparing a reconstructed reference image with the actual reference image successfully identified samples that had erroneous data and indicated that, in samples with good data, approximately 85% of the displacement field was accurate. Finally, the strains measured in mouse Achilles tendons were consistent with the prior literature. Therefore, this algorithm is a highly useful and adaptable tool for accurately measuring local tissue strains in tendons.

Measuring Local Tissue Strains in Tendons via Open-Source Digital Image Correlation

This paper describes an open-source digital image correlation algorithm for measuring local 2D tissue strains within tendon explants. The accuracy of the technique has been validated using multiple techniques, and it is available for public use.

There is considerable scientific interest in understanding the strains that tendon cells experience in situ and how these strains influence tissue ...

Method for High Speed Stretch Injury of Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell-derived Neurons in a 96-well Format

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a major clinical challenge with high morbidity and mortality. Despite decades of pre-clinical research, no proven therapies for TBI have been developed. This paper presents a novel method for pre-clinical neurotrauma research intended to complement existing pre-clinical models. It introduces human pathophysiology through the use of human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived neurons (hiPSCNs). It achieves loading pulse duration similar to the loading durations of clinical closed head impact injury. It employs a 96-well format that facilitates high throughput experiments and makes efficient use of expensive cells and culture reagents. Silicone membranes are first treated to remove neurotoxic uncured polymer and then bonded to commercial 96-well plate bodies to create stretchable 96-well plates. A custom-built device is used to indent some or all of the well bottoms from beneath, inducing equibiaxial mechanical strain that mechanically injures cells in culture in the wells. The relationship between indentation depth and mechanical strain is determined empirically using high speed videography of well bottoms during indentation. Cells, including hiPSCNs, can be cultured on these silicone membranes using modified versions of conventional cell culture protocols. Fluorescent microscopic images of cell cultures are acquired and analyzed after injury in a semi-automated fashion to quantify the level of injury in each well. The model presented is optimized for hiPSCNs but could in theory be applied to other cell types.

Here we present a method for a human in vitro model of stretch injury in a 96-well format on a timescale relevant to impact trauma. This includes methods for fabricating stretchable plates, quantifying the mechanical insult, culturing and injuring cells, imaging, and high content analysis to quantify injury.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a major clinical challenge with high morbidity and mortality. Despite decades of pre-clinical research, no proven ...

Open-Source Real-Time Closed-Loop Electrical Threshold Tracking for Translational Pain Research

Nociceptors are a class of primary afferent neurons that signal potentially harmful noxious stimuli. An increase in nociceptor excitability occurs in acute and chronic pain conditions. This produces abnormal ongoing activity or reduced activation thresholds to noxious stimuli. Identifying the cause of this increased excitability is required for the development and validation of mechanism-based treatments. Single-neuron electrical threshold tracking can quantify nociceptor excitability. Therefore, we have developed an application to allow such measurements and demonstrate its use in humans and rodents. APTrack provides real-time data visualization and action potential identification using a temporal raster plot. Algorithms detect action potentials by threshold crossing and monitor their latency after electrical stimulation. The plugin then modulates the electrical stimulation amplitude using an up-down method to estimate the electrical threshold of the nociceptors. The software was built upon the Open Ephys system (V0.54) and coded in C++ using the JUCE framework. It runs on Windows, Linux, and Mac operating systems. The open-source code is available (<a data-saferedirecturl="https://www.google.com/url?q=https://github.com/Microneurography/APTrack&amp;source=gmail&amp;ust=1680789829274000&amp;usg=AOvVaw0nMk9J_EI2jUn8SlmC5JJm" href="https://github.com/Microneurography/APTrack" target="_blank">https://github.com/Microneurography/APTrack</a>). The electrophysiological recordings were taken from nociceptors in both a mouse skin-nerve preparation using the teased fiber method in the saphenous nerve and in healthy human volunteers using microneurography in the superficial peroneal nerve. Nociceptors were classified by their response to thermal and mechanical stimuli, as well as by monitoring the activity-dependent slowing of the conduction velocity. The software facilitated the experiment by simplifying the action potential identification through the temporal raster plot. We demonstrate real-time closed-loop electrical threshold tracking of single-neuron action potentials during&#160;in vivo&#160;human microneurography, for the first time, and during&#160;ex vivo&#160;mouse electrophysiological recordings of C-fibers and A&#948;-fibers. We establish proof of principle by showing that the electrical threshold of a human heat-sensitive C-fiber nociceptor is reduced by heating the receptive field. This plugin enables the electrical threshold tracking of single-neuron action potentials and allows the quantification of changes in nociceptor excitability.

APTrack is a software plugin developed for the Open Ephys platform that enables real-time data visualization and the closed-loop electrical threshold tracking of neuronal action potentials. We have successfully used this in microneurography for human C-fiber nociceptors and mouse C-fiber and A&#948;-fiber nociceptors.

Nociceptors are a class of primary afferent neurons that signal potentially harmful noxious stimuli. An increase in nociceptor excitability occurs in ...

Direct Linear Transformation for the Measurement of In-Situ Peripheral Nerve Strain During Stretching

Summary

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Production of a Strain-Measuring Device with an Improved 3D Printer

In Vivo Electrophysiological Measurements on Mouse Sciatic Nerves

Measuring Local Tissue Strains in Tendons via Open-Source Digital Image Correlation

Method for High Speed Stretch Injury of Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell-derived Neurons in a 96-well Format

Open-Source Real-Time Closed-Loop Electrical Threshold Tracking for Translational Pain Research