Diese Arbeit wurde durch ein NIH Forschungsstipendium, eine Epilepsie-Stiftung zu gewähren und eine McKnight Foundation gewähren MT Experimente an Drosophila Fruchtfliege wurden in Übereinstimmung mit den Richtlinien und Vorschriften her von der UC Berkeley Tierversuchen eingesetzten Ausschusses durchgeführt unterstützt.

Probenvorbereitung: Die Nacht vor dem Versuch werden männliche Fliegen der gewünschten Genotyp betäubt und in ein Fläschchen mit einem weichen Nylon-Stecker. Ein Wattebausch würde auch funktionieren. Nach Betäubung, die Krampfschwelle verändert wird, so die Fliegen am besten für mindestens 6 Stunden nach links, wenn über Nacht ideal ist. Am Tag des Experiments, die Fliegen ein zu einer Zeit auf Glasträger montiert mit einer Schicht aus Dentalwachs auf einer Seite. Eine einzige Fliege wird durch den Kopf mit einer 23-Gauge-Nadel (mit der scharfen Spitze abgeschnitten), die an eine Saugleitung abgeholt. Die Fliege wird dann das Wachs auf der Folie, indem Sie die Beine und Flügel in das Wachs befestigt. Nachdem die Fliege immobilisiert ist, ist das Wachs bis um den Hals geschoben und die Augen voll Immobilisierung des Kopfes. Elektrophysiologie: Die Fliege, die nun montiert und bereit zu gehen ist in der Elektrophysiologie platziert eingerichtet. Die Elektrophysiologie Einrichtung besteht aus drei Sets von Mikromanipulatoren, die jeweils mit 1-2 geschärft Wolfram Elektroden angebracht. Die Spannung wird durch einen Stimulator, die zu einer Isolierstation an der stimulierenden Elektroden verbunden ist. Die Aufnahme-Elektrode ist mit einem Vorverstärker, was wiederum zu einem digitalen Speicher-Oszilloskop angeschlossen ist. Während es nicht wesentlich ist, ist es sinnvoll, einen Lautsprecher bis an das Oszilloskop so, dass die Antworten hörbar gemacht werden können süchtig sind. Eine Masseelektrode ist in den Bauch der Fliege eingesetzt. Die Aufnahme Elektrode wird in einer der Dorsal Längsmuskeln in den Brustkorb der Fliege eingesetzt. Die stimulierenden Elektroden werden in den Kopf gesteckt. Ein an der Seite jedes Auges. Der Stimulator sollte die folgenden Einstellungen zu starten: Continuous Pulsabstand mit 2 Sekunden zwischen jedem Impuls. Es sollte kein Puls zu verzögern. Die Impulsbreite sollte 0,2 ms. Das Oszilloskop sollte die Speicherung Funktion eingeschaltet haben und die folgenden Einstellungen: Time / DIV sollte 1ms/DIV eingestellt werden. Der Volt / DIV sollte entweder 0.1V/DIV oder 50 mV / DIV eingestellt werden. Der Riese Faser Schwelle ist durch die Bereitstellung einzelner Impulse und in Anbetracht der minimalen Spannung benötigt, um eine Antwort zu bekommen bestimmt. Diese Spannung ist in der Regel etwa 2 V. Nach dem riesigen Faser Schwelle ermittelt wurde, zu stoppen pulsierende the fly und ändern Sie die Einstellungen auf dem Oszilloskop: 0,2 s / div Die Einstellungen auf der Stimulator sollte geändert werden: Der Puls-Intervall sollte auf einzelne eingestellt werden. Der Zug sollte eingeschaltet sein und auf 3 Sekunden. Die Wellenform Parameter sind: 0,5 ms Pulse bei 200Hz für 300 ms. Die Spannung wird auf die gewünschte Einstellung und ein Hochfrequenz-Impulsfolge ist die Fliege das Gehirn geliefert geändert. Wenn ein Anfall nicht induziert wird, wird die Oszilloskopspur zeigen eine flache Linie, nachdem der Zug. Wenn die Einstellungen schnell eingestellt sind zurück zum Ausgangspunkt Einstellungen, werden die einzelnen Impulse zu einer Reaktion in der riesigen Faser-System. Wenn ein Anfall induziert wird, wird das Oszilloskop die Beschlagnahme-ähnliche Aktivität, nachdem der Zug zu zeigen. Wenn die Einstellungen schnell wieder auf die ursprünglichen Einstellungen eingeschaltet, werden die einzelnen Pulse nicht um eine Antwort in den riesigen Faser-System zu aktivieren. Die Fliegen haben eine Refraktärzeit nach einem hochfrequenten Stimulus Wellenzug in dem die Beschlagnahme ähnliche Aktivität nicht zu induziert. Wenn kein Anfall die Fliegen sind für etwa 7 Minuten feuerfest. Wenn ein Anfall induziert wird, haben die Fliegen eine Refraktärzeit von ca. 17 Minuten. Bei der Festlegung der Schwellenwerte, können zusätzliche hochfrequente Impulse für den gleichen Flug (nach dem geeigneten Zeitpunkt für die Refraktärzeit) geliefert werden, bis der Schwellenwert ermittelt wird oder bis der Riese Faser Reaktion zu schwach, um zu sehen. Nach dem Experiment abgeschlossen ist, wird die Fliege von der Elektrophysiologie entfernt einzurichten, veröffentlicht von der Wachs-und entsorgt.

<ol>
	<li>Kuebler, D., Tanouye, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Modifications+of+seizure+susceptibility+in+Drosophila.">Modifications of seizure susceptibility in Drosophila.</a> J Neurophysiol. 83, 998-1009 (2000).</li><li>Kuebler, D., Zhang, H., Ren, X., Tanouye, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genetic+suppression+of+seizure+susceptibility+in+Drosophila.">Genetic suppression of seizure susceptibility in Drosophila.</a> J Neurophysiol. 86, 1211-1225 (2001).</li><li>Song, J., Tanouye, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Seizure+suppression+by+shakB2,+a+gap+junction+mutation+in+Drosophila.">Seizure suppression by shakB2, a gap junction mutation in Drosophila.</a> J Neurophysiol. 95, 627-635 (2006).</li></ol>

Dieses Video wurde die grundlegenden Schritte bei der Bestimmung der Krampfschwelle einer einzelnen Fliege Drosophila demonstriert. Anstelle der Verwendung der digitalen Oszilloskop kann ein EDV-Digitizer verwendet werden. Diese Technik ist nützlich für die Bestimmung der Wirkung eines Arzneimittels oder genetische Veränderung auf die Krampfschwelle einer Fliege.

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<td>Digital oscilloscope</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
<td>Hitachi</td>
<td>VC-6523</td>
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neurocircuit assays for seizures in epilepsy mutants of drosophila

Drosophila melanogaster ist ein nützliches Werkzeug zur Untersuchung der Beschlagnahme ähnliche Aktivität. Eine Vielzahl von Mutanten, bei denen Anfälle entweder durch Erschütterungen oder elektrische Stimulation induziert werden kann, ist verfügbar für das Studium der verschiedenen Aspekte der Beschlagnahme Aktivität und Verhalten. Alle Fliegen, einschließlich Wild-Typ wird zu unterziehen Beschlagnahme-ähnliche Aktivität, wenn bei einer ausreichend hohen Spannung angeregt. Beschlagnahme ähnliche Aktivität ist eine Alles-oder-Nichts-Reaktion und jeden Genotyp hat eine spezifische Krampfschwelle. Die Beschlagnahme Schwelle zu einem bestimmten Genotyp fliegen kann entweder durch Behandlung mit einem Medikament oder durch genetische Verdrängung oder Verbesserung verändert werden. Die Schwelle ist leicht von der Elektrophysiologie gemessen. Beschlagnahme-ähnliche Aktivität kann über hochfrequente elektrische Stimulation direkt an das Gehirn geliefert und erfasst durch die dorsale Längsmuskeln (DLMS) in den Thorax induziert werden. Die DLMS sind Teil der riesigen Faser-System innerviert. Beginnend mit niedriger Spannung, Hochfrequenz-Stimulation, und anschließend Erhöhung der Spannung in kleinen Schritten kann die Krampfschwelle für eine Fliege gemessen werden.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Neurocircuit Assays for Seizures in Epilepsy Mutants of Drosophila at JoVE.com

Neurocircuit Assays for Seizures in Epilepsy Mutants of Drosophila

Mit hochfrequenten elektrischen Stimulation, Beschlagnahme-ähnliche Aktivität kann in induziert werden<em&gt; Drosophila</em&gt;. Diese Aktivität ist leicht von der riesigen Faser-System aufgezeichnet.

Neurocircuit Assays für Anfällen bei Epilepsie Mutanten Drosophila</em

Drosophila melanogaster is a useful tool for studying seizure like activity. A variety of mutants in which seizures can be induced through either physical ...

neurocircuit-assays-for-seizures-in-epilepsy-mutants-of-drosophila

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

Neurocircuit Assays for Seizures in Epilepsy Mutants of Drosophila

10.4K Aufrufe.  University of California, Berkeley. Mit hochfrequenten elektrischen Stimulation, Beschlagnahme-ähnliche Aktivität kann in induziert werden Drosophila. Diese Aktivität ist leicht von der riesigen Faser-System aufgezeichnet.

Serie: Neurocircuit Assays for Seizures in Epilepsy Mutants of Drosophila

Protocol for RNAi Assays in Adult Mosquitoes (A. gambiae)

Reverse genetic approaches have proven extremely useful for determining  which genes underly resistance to vector pathogens in mosquitoes.  This video protocol illustrates a method used by the Dimopoulos lab to inject dsRNA into Anopheles gambiae mosquitoes, which harbor the malaria parasite.  The technique manipulating the injection setup and injecting dsRNA into the thorax is illustrated.

Protocol for RNAi Assays in Adult Mosquitoes A. gambiae

Reverse genetic approaches have proven extremely useful for determining which genes underly resistance to vector pathogens in mosquitoes. This video protocol illustrates a method used by the Dimopoulos lab to inject dsRNA into Anopheles gambiae mosquitoes, which harbor the malaria parasite. The technique manipulating the injection setup and injecting dsRNA into the thorax is illustrated.

Protokoll für die RNAi-Assays in Adult Moskitos (A. gambiae)

Reverse genetic approaches have proven extremely useful for determining  which genes underly resistance to vector pathogens in mosquitoes.  This video ...

Forschung

Biologie

Paradigms for Pharmacological Characterization of C. elegans Synaptic Transmission Mutants

The nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans, has become an expedient model for studying neurotransmission. C. elegans is unique among animal models, as the anatomy and connectivity of its nervous system has been determined from electron micrographs and refined by pharmacological assays. In this video, we describe how two complementary neural stimulants, an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, called aldicarb, and a gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptor antagonist, called pentylenetetrazole (PTZ), may be employed to specifically characterize signaling at C. elegans neuromuscular junctions (NMJs) and facilitate our understanding of antagonistic neural circuits.
Of 302 C. elegans neurons, nineteen GABAergic D-type motor neurons innervate body wall muscles (BWMs), while four GABAergic neurons, called RMEs, innervate head muscles. Conversely, thirty-nine motor neurons express the excitatory neurotransmitter, acetylcholine (ACh), and antagonize GABA transmission at BWMs to coordinate locomotion. The antagonistic nature of GABAergic and cholinergic motor neurons at body wall NMJs was initially determined by laser ablation and later buttressed by aldicarb exposure. Acute aldicarb exposure results in a time-course or dose-responsive paralysis in wild-type worms. Yet, loss of excitatory ACh transmission confers resistance to aldicarb, as less ACh accumulates at worm NMJs, leading to less stimulation of BWMs. Resistance to aldicarb may be observed with ACh-specific or general synaptic function mutants. Consistent with antagonistic GABA and ACh transmission, loss of GABA transmission, or a failure to negatively regulate ACh release, confers hypersensitivity to aldicarb. Although aldicarb exposure has led to the isolation of numerous worm homologs of neurotransmission genes, aldicarb exposure alone cannot efficiently determine prevailing roles for genes and pathways in specific C. elegans motor neurons. For this purpose, we have introduced a complementary experimental approach, which uses PTZ.
Neurotransmission mutants display clear phenotypes, distinct from aldicarb-induced paralysis, in response to PTZ. Wild-type worms, as well as mutants with specific inabilities to release or receive ACh, do not show apparent sensitivity to PTZ. However, GABA mutants, as well as general synaptic function mutants, display anterior convulsions in a time-course or dose-responsive manner. Mutants that cannot negatively regulate general neurotransmitter release and, thus, secrete excessive amounts of ACh onto BWMs, become paralyzed on PTZ. The PTZ-induced phenotypes of discrete mutant classes indicate that a complementary approach with aldicarb and PTZ exposure paradigms in C. elegans may accelerate our understanding of neurotransmission. Moreover, videos demonstrating how we perform pharmacological assays should establish consistent methods for C. elegans research.

This video demonstrates how to employ two neural stimulants, aldicarb and pentylenetetrazole (PTZ), in complementary ways to study synaptic function in the nematode, C. elegans. This complementary approach may also be used to shed light on evolutionarily conserved mechanisms for modulating neuronal synchrony and has implications for epilepsy and seizures.

Paradigmen für pharmakologische Charakterisierung von C. elegans Synaptic Transmission Mutanten

The nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans, has become an expedient model for studying neurotransmission. C. elegans is unique among animal models, as the ...

High-Resolution Video Tracking of Locomotion in Adult Drosophila Melanogaster

Flies provide an important model for studying complex behavior due to the plethora of genetic tools available to researchers in this field. Studying locomotor behavior in Drosophila melanogaster relies on the ability to be able to quantify changes in motion during or in response to a given task. For this reason, a high-resolution video tracking system, such as the one we describe in this paper, is a valuable tool for measuring locomotion in real-time. Our protocol involves the use of an initial air pulse to break the flies momentum, followed by a thirty second filming period in a square chamber. A tracking program is then used to calculate the instantaneous speed of each fly within the chamber in 10 msec increments. Analysis software then compiles this data, and outputs a variety of parameters such as average speed, max speed, time spent in motion, acceleration, etc. This protocol will discuss proper feeding and management of flies for behavioral tasks, handling flies without anesthetization or immobilization, setting up a controlled environment, and running the assay from start to finish.

The study of complex locomotor behavior in Drosophila melanogaster is dependent upon the ability to quantify changes in a given fly's movement. This article demonstrates how to do this using a high-resolution tracking system.

Hochauflösendes Video Tracking von Locomotion in Adult Drosophila melanogaster

Flies provide an important model for studying complex behavior due to the plethora of genetic tools available to researchers in this field.  Studying ...

Preparation of embryos for Electron Microscopy of the Drosophila embryonic heart tube

The morphogenesis of the Drosophila embryonic heart tube has emerged as a valuable model system for studying cell migration, cell-cell adhesion and cell shape changes during embryonic development. One of the challenges faced in studying this structure is that the lumen of the heart tube, as well as the membrane features that are crucial to heart tube formation, are difficult to visualize in whole mount embryos, due to the small size of the heart tube and intra-lumenal space relative to the embryo. The use of transmission electron microscopy allows for higher magnification of these structures and gives the advantage of examining the embryos in cross section, which easily reveals the size and shape of the lumen. In this video, we detail the process for reliable fixation, embedding, and sectioning of late stage Drosophila embryos in order to visualize the heart tube lumen as well as important cellular structures including cell-cell junctions and the basement membrane.

Preparation of embryos for Electron Microscopy of the Drosophila embryonic heart tube

We describe a process for fixation, embedding, sectioning, and imaging of late stage Drosophila embryos for Trasmission Electron Microscopy of the embryonic heart tube. This technique allows for the visualization of the heart tube lumen as well as the basement membrane, which lines the lumen of the heart.

Vorbereitung der Embryonen für Elektronenmikroskopie der Drosophila Embryonale Herz Rohr

The morphogenesis of the Drosophila  embryonic heart tube has emerged as a valuable model system for studying cell migration, cell-cell adhesion and cell ...

Analysis of Schwann-astrocyte Interactions Using In Vitro Assays

Schwann cells are one of the commonly used cells in repair strategies following spinal cord injuries. Schwann cells are capable of supporting axonal regeneration and sprouting by secreting growth factors 1,2 and providing growth promoting adhesion molecules 3 and extracellular matrix molecules 4. In addition they myelinate the demyelinated axons at the site of injury 5.
However following transplantation, Schwann cells do not migrate from the site of implant and do not intermingle with the host astrocytes 6,7. This results in formation of a sharp boundary between the Schwann cells and astrocytes, creating an obstacle for growing axons trying to exit the graft back into the host tissue proximally and distally. Astrocytes in contact with Schwann cells also undergo hypertrophy and up-regulate the inhibitory molecules 8-13.
In vitro assays have been used to model Schwann cell-astrocyte interactions and have been important in understanding the mechanism underlying the cellular behaviour.
These in vitro assays include boundary assay, where a co-culture is made using two different cells with each cell type occupying different territories with only a small gap separating the two cell fronts. As the cells divide and migrate, the two cellular fronts get closer to each other and finally collide. This allows the behaviour of the two cellular populations to be analyzed at the boundary. Another variation of the same technique is to mix the two cellular populations in culture and over time the two cell types segregate with Schwann cells clumped together as islands in between astrocytes together creating multiple Schwann-astrocyte boundaries.
The second assay used in studying the interaction of two cell types is the migration assay where cellular movement can be tracked on the surface of the other cell type monolayer 14,15. This assay is commonly known as inverted coverslip assay. Schwann cells are cultured on small glass fragments and they are inverted face down onto the surface of astrocyte monolayers and migration is assessed from the edge of coverslip.
Both assays have been instrumental in studying the underlying mechanisms involved in the cellular exclusion and boundary formation. Some of the molecules identified using these techniques include N-Cadherins 15, Chondroitin Sulphate proteoglycans(CSPGs) 16,17, FGF/Heparin 18, Eph/Ephrins19.
This article intends to describe boundary assay and migration assay in stepwise fashion and elucidate the possible technical problems that might occur.

Analysis of Schwann-astrocyte Interactions Using In Vitro Assays

This article intends to describe in stepwise fashion the commonly used in vitro assays used in studying Schwann cell-asrtocyte interactions.

Analyse von Schwann-Astrozyten Wechselwirkungen mit In Vitro Assays

Schwann cells are one of the commonly used cells in repair strategies following spinal cord injuries. Schwann cells are capable of supporting axonal ...

Two Types of Assays for Detecting Frog Sperm Chemoattraction

Sperm chemoattraction in invertebrates can be sufficiently robust that one can place a pipette containing the attractive peptide into a sperm suspension and microscopically visualize sperm accumulation around the pipette1. Sperm chemoattraction in vertebrates such as frogs, rodents and humans is more difficult to detect and requires quantitative assays. Such assays are of two major types - assays that quantitate sperm movement to a source of chemoattractant, so-called sperm accumulation assays, and assays that actually track the swimming trajectories of individual sperm.
Sperm accumulation assays are relatively rapid allowing tens or hundreds of assays to be done in a single day, thereby allowing dose response curves and time courses to be carried out relatively rapidly. These types of assays have been used extensively to characterize many well established chemoattraction systems - for example, neutrophil chemotaxis to bacterial peptides and sperm chemotaxis to follicular fluid. Sperm tracking assays can be more labor intensive but offer additional data on how chemoattractancts actually alter the swimming paths that sperm take. This type of assay is needed to demonstrate the orientation of sperm movement relative to the chemoattrractant gradient axis and to visualize characteristic turns or changes in orientation that bring the sperm closer to the egg.
Here we describe methods used for each of these two types of assays. The sperm accumulation assay utilized is called a "two-chamber" assay. Amphibian sperm are placed in a tissue culture plate insert with a polycarbonate filter floor having 12 &mu;m diameter pores. Inserts with sperm are placed into tissue culture plate wells containing buffer and a chemoatttractant carefully pipetted into the bottom well where the floor meets the wall (see Fig. 1). After incubation, the top insert containing the sperm reservoir is carefully removed, and sperm in the bottom chamber that have passed through the membrane are removed, pelleted and then counted by hemocytometer or flow cytometer.
The sperm tracking assay utilizes a Zigmond chamber originally developed for observing neutrophil chemotaxis and modified for observation of sperm by Giojalas and coworkers2,3. The chamber consists of a thick glass slide into which two vertical troughs have been machined. These are separated by a 1 mm wide observation platform. After application of a cover glass, sperm are loaded into one trough, the chemoattractant agent into the other and movement of individual sperm visualized by video microscopy. Video footage is then analyzed using software to identify two-dimensional cell movements in the x-y plane as a function of time (xyt data sets) that form the trajectory of each sperm.

Eggs and the extracellular coatings around eggs frequently release peptides, proteins and small molecules that communicate with sperm to guide them to the egg thereby promoting fertilization. Using frog sperm we describe and compare two classes of assays used to detect sperm chemoattraction &#x2013; sperm accumulation assays and sperm tracking assays.

Zwei Arten von Assays zum Nachweis von Frog Sperm Chemotaxis

Sperm chemoattraction in invertebrates can be sufficiently robust that one can place a pipette containing the attractive peptide into a sperm suspension ...

Endurance Training Protocol and Longitudinal Performance Assays for Drosophila melanogaster

One of the most pressing problems facing modern medical researchers is the surging levels of obesity, with the consequent increase in associated disorders such as diabetes and cardiovascular disease 1-3. An important topic of research into these associated health problems involves the role of endurance exercise as a beneficial intervention.
Exercise training is an inexpensive, non-invasive intervention with several beneficial results, including reduction in excess body fat 4, increased insulin sensitivity in skeletal muscle 5, increased anti-inflammatory and antioxidative responses 6, and improved contractile capacity in cardiomyocytes 7. Low intensity exercise is known to increase mitochondrial activity and biogenesis in humans 8 and mice, with the transcriptional coactivator PGC1-&alpha; as an important intermediate 9,10. 
Despite the importance of exercise as a tool for combating several important age-related diseases, extensive longitudinal genetic studies have been impeded by the lack of an endurance training protocol for a short-lived genetic model species. The variety of genetic tools available for use with Drosophila, together with its short lifespan and inexpensive maintenance, make it an appealing model for further study of these genetic mechanisms. With this in mind we have developed a novel apparatus, known as the Power Tower, for large scale exercise-training in Drosophila melanogaster 11. The Power Tower utilizes the flies' instinctive negative geotaxis behavior to repetitively induce rapid climbing. Each time the machine lifts, then drops, the platform of flies, the flies are induced to climb. Flies continue to respond as long as the machine is in operation or until they become too fatigued to respond. Thus, the researcher can use this machine to provide simultaneous training to large numbers of age-matched and genetically identical flies. Additionally, we describe associated assays useful to track longitudinal progress of fly cohorts during training.

Endurance Training Protocol and Longitudinal Performance Assays for Drosophila melanogaster

We describe the first endurance training protocol for an important genetic model species, Drosophila melanogaster, and outline several assays to chart improvements in mobility following training.

Ausdauertraining Protokoll und Längs-Performance-Assays für Drosophila melanogaster

One of the most pressing problems facing modern medical researchers is the surging levels of obesity, with the consequent increase in associated disorders ...

Live Imaging of Apoptotic Cell Clearance during Drosophila Embryogenesis

The proper elimination of unwanted or aberrant cells through apoptosis and subsequent phagocytosis (apoptotic cell clearance) is crucial for normal development in all metazoan organisms. Apoptotic cell clearance is a highly dynamic process intimately associated with cell death; unengulfed apoptotic cells are barely seen in vivo under normal conditions. In order to understand the different steps of apoptotic cell clearance and to compare 'professional' phagocytes - macrophages and dendritic cells to 'non-professional' - tissue-resident neighboring cells, in vivo live imaging of the process is extremely valuable. Here we describe a protocol for studying apoptotic cell clearance in live Drosophila embryos. To follow the dynamics of different steps in phagocytosis we use specific markers for apoptotic cells and phagocytes. In addition, we can monitor two phagocyte systems in parallel: 'professional' macrophages and 'semi-professional' glia in the developing central nervous system (CNS). The method described here employs the Drosophila embryo as an excellent model for real time studies of apoptotic cell clearance.

Live Imaging of Apoptotic Cell Clearance during Drosophila Embryogenesis

Here we describe an effective method for studying dynamics of apoptotic cell clearance in vivo. This method employs live Drosophila embryos as a powerful model for monitoring phagocytosis of apoptotic cells using specific labeling of apoptotic cells and phagocytes.

Live-Imaging von apoptotischen Ausverkauf während<em&gt; Drosophila</em&gt; Embryogenese

The  proper elimination of unwanted or aberrant cells through apoptosis and  subsequent phagocytosis (apoptotic cell clearance) is crucial for normal  ...

Coupled Assays for Monitoring Protein Refolding in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Proteostasis, defined as the combined processes of protein folding/biogenesis, refolding/repair, and degradation, is a delicate cellular balance that must be maintained to avoid deleterious consequences 1. External or internal factors that disrupt this balance can lead to protein aggregation, toxicity and cell death. In humans this is a major contributing factor to the symptoms associated with neurodegenerative disorders such as Huntington's, Parkinson's, and Alzheimer's diseases 10. It is therefore essential that the proteins involved in maintenance of proteostasis be identified in order to develop treatments for these debilitating diseases. This article describes techniques for monitoring in vivo protein folding at near-real time resolution using the model protein firefly luciferase fused to green fluorescent protein (FFL-GFP). FFL-GFP is a unique model chimeric protein as the FFL moiety is extremely sensitive to stress-induced misfolding and aggregation, which inactivates the enzyme 12. Luciferase activity is monitored using an enzymatic assay, and the GFP moiety provides a method of visualizing soluble or aggregated FFL using automated microscopy. These coupled methods incorporate two parallel and technically independent approaches to analyze both refolding and functional reactivation of an enzyme after stress. Activity recovery can be directly correlated with kinetics of disaggregation and re-solubilization to better understand how protein quality control factors such as protein chaperones collaborate to perform these functions. In addition, gene deletions or mutations can be used to test contributions of specific proteins or protein subunits to this process. In this article we examine the contributions of the protein disaggregase Hsp104 13, known to partner with the Hsp40/70/nucleotide exchange factor (NEF) refolding system 5, to protein refolding to validate this approach.

Coupled Assays for Monitoring Protein Refolding in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

This article describes the use of a firefly luciferase-GFP fusion protein to investigate in vivo protein folding in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Using this reagent, refolding of a model heat-denatured protein can be monitored simultaneously by fluorescence microscopy and an enzymatic assay to probe the roles of proteostasis network components in protein quality control.

Gekoppelt Assays zur Überwachung Proteinrückfaltung in<em&gt; Saccharomyces cerevisiae</em

Proteostasis, defined as the combined processes of protein folding/biogenesis, refolding/repair, and degradation, is a delicate cellular balance that must ...

Viability Assays for Cells in Culture

Manual cell counts on a microscope are a sensitive means of assessing cellular viability but are time-consuming and therefore expensive. Computerized viability assays are expensive in terms of equipment but can be faster and more objective than manual cell counts. The present report describes the use of three such viability assays. Two of these assays are infrared and one is luminescent. Both infrared assays rely on a 16&#160;bit Odyssey Imager. One infrared assay uses the DRAQ5 stain for nuclei combined with the Sapphire stain for cytosol and is visualized in the 700 nm channel. The other infrared assay, an In-Cell Western, uses antibodies against cytoskeletal proteins (&#945;-tubulin or microtubule associated protein 2) and labels them in the 800 nm channel. The third viability assay is a commonly used luminescent assay for ATP, but we use a quarter of the recommended volume to save on cost. These measurements are all linear and correlate with the number of cells plated, but vary in sensitivity. All three assays circumvent time-consuming microscopy and sample the entire well, thereby reducing sampling error. Finally, all of the assays can easily be completed within one day of the end of the experiment, allowing greater numbers of experiments to be performed within short timeframes. However, they all rely on the assumption that cell numbers remain in proportion to signal strength after treatments, an assumption that is sometimes not met, especially for cellular ATP. Furthermore, if cells increase or decrease in size after treatment, this might affect signal strength without affecting cell number. We conclude that all viability assays, including manual counts, suffer from a number of caveats, but that computerized viability assays are well worth the initial investment. Using all three assays together yields a comprehensive view of cellular structure and function.

Therapeutic compounds are often first examined in vitro with viability assays. Blind cell counts by a human observer can be highly sensitive to small changes in cell number but do not assess function. Computerized viability assays, as described here, can assess both structure and function in an objective manner.

Die Lebensfähigkeit Assays für Zellen in Kultur

Manual cell counts on a microscope are a sensitive means of assessing cellular viability but are time-consuming and therefore expensive. Computerized ...