この作品は、カリフォルニア大学バークレー校動物使用委員会によって定められたガイドラインおよび規制に準拠して行われたショウジョウバエショウジョウバエでMTの実験にNIHの研究助成金、てんかん財団の助成金とMcKnight財団の助成金によってサポートされていました。

試料の調製： 実験前の晩には、目的の遺伝子型の雄のハエを麻酔し、ソフトなナイロンプラグ付きバイアルに配置されます。コットンボールにも働くだろう。麻酔の後、発作閾値が変更され、一晩理想的ですがハエが最高、少なくとも6時間放置されていますので。 実験日に、ハエは片側歯科ワックスの層をガラススライドに1つずつ搭載されている。 単一のフライは、真空ラインに接続された23ゲージの針を（カットオフ鋭い先端を持つ）を使用して頭に拾われる。 フライは、ワックスに足と羽を押すことにより、スライド上のワックスに貼付されています。 フライが固定化されると、ワックスが完全に頭部を固定するために首や目の周りを押し上げている。 電気生理学： 現在マウントされていると行って準備ができて電気生理学的に配置されているフライは、設定する。 電気生理学のセットは、最大マイクロマニピュレータの3セット、接続されている2つの尖ったタングステン電極への1つでそれぞれ構成されています。電圧は、刺激電極に接続された分離ユニットに接続されている刺激によって提供されます。記録電極は、順番に、デジタルストレージオシロスコープに接続されているプリアンプに接続されています。それは本質的ではありませんが、それは、応答が聞こえるが行われるようにオシロスコープにフックアップするスピーカーがあると便利です。 接地電極は、ハエの腹部に挿入されます。 記録電極は、ハエの胸部の背側縦筋のいずれかに挿入されます。 刺激電極は頭部に挿入されます。それぞれの眼の側に一つ。 各パルスの間に2秒で連続パルスの間隔を：刺激装置は、次の設定を開始する必要があります。はパルスの遅延はないはずです。パルス幅は、入力サージでなければなりません。 オシロスコープは、ストレージ機能がオンになっていると、次の設定が必要です：時間/ DIVは1ms/DIVに設定する必要があります。ボルト/ DIVは0.1V/DIVまたは50 mV / divのどちらかで設定する必要があります。 巨大な繊維のしきい値は、単一のパルスを供給し、応答を得るために必要な最小限の電圧に注目することによって決定されます。この電圧は、およそ2通常はVです。 巨大な繊維のしきい値が決定されると、その場にパルスを停止し、オシロスコープの設定を変更する：0.2 S / DIV 刺激の設定は次のように変更する必要があります。パルス間隔は、単一に設定する必要があります。電車の電源が入っていて、3秒に設定する必要があります。波形パラメータは次のとおりです：300ミリ秒のための200Hzの0.5 msのパルス。電圧を所望の設定に変更され、パルスの高周波列車は、ハエの脳に配信されます。 発作が誘発されていない場合は、オシロスコープのトレースは、列車の後に平らな線が表示されます。設定がすぐに開始する設定に戻す設定されている場合、単一のパルスは、巨大な繊維系の応答の原因となります。 発作が誘発されている場合、オシロスコープは列車の後に発作のような活動が表示されます。設定はすぐに元の設定に戻している場合は、単一パルスは巨大な繊維系の応答を有効にするために失敗します。 ハエは、活動のような発作が誘発されることができる高周波刺激wavetrain後に不応期を持っている。は発作が発生しない場合ハエは約7分間耐火です。発作が誘発されている場合は、ハエは約17分の不応期を持っている。 巨大な光の応答に見て弱すぎになるまでしきい値が決定されるまで、またはしきい値を決定する際に、追加の高周波刺激は同じフライ（不応期のための適切な時間後）に配信することができます。 実験が完了すると、フライは電気生理学から削除設定し、ワックスから解放され、処分される。

<ol>
	<li>Kuebler, D., Tanouye, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Modifications+of+seizure+susceptibility+in+Drosophila.">Modifications of seizure susceptibility in Drosophila.</a> J Neurophysiol. 83, 998-1009 (2000).</li><li>Kuebler, D., Zhang, H., Ren, X., Tanouye, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genetic+suppression+of+seizure+susceptibility+in+Drosophila.">Genetic suppression of seizure susceptibility in Drosophila.</a> J Neurophysiol. 86, 1211-1225 (2001).</li><li>Song, J., Tanouye, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Seizure+suppression+by+shakB2,+a+gap+junction+mutation+in+Drosophila.">Seizure suppression by shakB2, a gap junction mutation in Drosophila.</a> J Neurophysiol. 95, 627-635 (2006).</li></ol>

このビデオでは、個々のショウジョウバエのハエの発作の閾値を決定する際の基本的な手順を実証してきました。代わりにデジタルオシロスコープを使用する代わり、コンピュータ化されたデジタイザを使用することもできます。このテクニックは、ハエの発作閾値に対する薬剤または遺伝子改変の効果を判断するのに便利です。

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<td>Digital oscilloscope</td>
<td>&nbsp;</td>
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<td>S-900</td>
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neurocircuit assays for seizures in epilepsy mutants of drosophila

キイロショウジョウバエの活動のような発作を研究するための便利なツールです。発作が物理的な衝撃や電気的刺激のいずれかを介して誘導することができる変異体の様々な発作活動と行動のさまざまな側面の研究のために使用可能です。十分に高い電圧で刺激した場合、野生型を含むすべてのハエは、発作のような活動を受けることになる。活動のような発作は、全か無かの応答であり、各遺伝子型は、特定の発作閾値を持っています。ハエの特定の遺伝子型の発作閾値はいずれかの薬物による治療によって、または遺伝的抑制または機能の拡張によって変更することができます。しきい値が容易に電気生理学によって測定されます。発作様活性は、胸部の背側縦筋（DLMS）を介して脳に直接配信されると記録された高頻度の電気刺激により誘導することができる。 DLMSは、巨大な光ファイバシステムの一部によって神経支配されています。低電圧、高周波の刺激から始まり、その後少しずつ電圧を上げ、単一のフライ用の発作閾値を測定することができます。

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Neurocircuit Assays for Seizures in Epilepsy Mutants of Drosophila at JoVE.com

Neurocircuit Assays for Seizures in Epilepsy Mutants of Drosophila

使用して、高頻度電気刺激、発作のような活動がで誘導することができる<em&gt;ショウジョウバエ</em&gt;。この活動は、簡単に巨大な光ファイバシステムから記録されます。

のてんかんの変異体における発作のためのアッセイをNeurocircuitショウジョウバエ</em

Drosophila melanogaster is a useful tool for studying seizure like activity. A variety of mutants in which seizures can be induced through either physical ...

neurocircuit-assays-for-seizures-in-epilepsy-mutants-of-drosophila

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

Neurocircuit Assays for Seizures in Epilepsy Mutants of Drosophila

10.4K ビュー.  University of California, Berkeley. 使用して、高頻度電気刺激、発作のような活動がで誘導することができるショウジョウバエ。この活動は、簡単に巨大な光ファイバシステムから記録されます。

ビデオ: Neurocircuit Assays for Seizures in Epilepsy Mutants of Drosophila

Paradigms for Pharmacological Characterization of C. elegans Synaptic Transmission Mutants

The nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans, has become an expedient model for studying neurotransmission. C. elegans is unique among animal models, as the anatomy and connectivity of its nervous system has been determined from electron micrographs and refined by pharmacological assays. In this video, we describe how two complementary neural stimulants, an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, called aldicarb, and a gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptor antagonist, called pentylenetetrazole (PTZ), may be employed to specifically characterize signaling at C. elegans neuromuscular junctions (NMJs) and facilitate our understanding of antagonistic neural circuits.
Of 302 C. elegans neurons, nineteen GABAergic D-type motor neurons innervate body wall muscles (BWMs), while four GABAergic neurons, called RMEs, innervate head muscles. Conversely, thirty-nine motor neurons express the excitatory neurotransmitter, acetylcholine (ACh), and antagonize GABA transmission at BWMs to coordinate locomotion. The antagonistic nature of GABAergic and cholinergic motor neurons at body wall NMJs was initially determined by laser ablation and later buttressed by aldicarb exposure. Acute aldicarb exposure results in a time-course or dose-responsive paralysis in wild-type worms. Yet, loss of excitatory ACh transmission confers resistance to aldicarb, as less ACh accumulates at worm NMJs, leading to less stimulation of BWMs. Resistance to aldicarb may be observed with ACh-specific or general synaptic function mutants. Consistent with antagonistic GABA and ACh transmission, loss of GABA transmission, or a failure to negatively regulate ACh release, confers hypersensitivity to aldicarb. Although aldicarb exposure has led to the isolation of numerous worm homologs of neurotransmission genes, aldicarb exposure alone cannot efficiently determine prevailing roles for genes and pathways in specific C. elegans motor neurons. For this purpose, we have introduced a complementary experimental approach, which uses PTZ.
Neurotransmission mutants display clear phenotypes, distinct from aldicarb-induced paralysis, in response to PTZ. Wild-type worms, as well as mutants with specific inabilities to release or receive ACh, do not show apparent sensitivity to PTZ. However, GABA mutants, as well as general synaptic function mutants, display anterior convulsions in a time-course or dose-responsive manner. Mutants that cannot negatively regulate general neurotransmitter release and, thus, secrete excessive amounts of ACh onto BWMs, become paralyzed on PTZ. The PTZ-induced phenotypes of discrete mutant classes indicate that a complementary approach with aldicarb and PTZ exposure paradigms in C. elegans may accelerate our understanding of neurotransmission. Moreover, videos demonstrating how we perform pharmacological assays should establish consistent methods for C. elegans research.

This video demonstrates how to employ two neural stimulants, aldicarb and pentylenetetrazole (PTZ), in complementary ways to study synaptic function in the nematode, C. elegans. This complementary approach may also be used to shed light on evolutionarily conserved mechanisms for modulating neuronal synchrony and has implications for epilepsy and seizures.

C. elegansのシナプス伝達の変異体の薬理学的特性評価のためのパラダイム

The nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans, has become an expedient model for studying neurotransmission. C. elegans is unique among animal models, as the ...

生物学

Lens Transplantation in Zebrafish and its Application in the Analysis of Eye Mutants

The lens plays an important role in the development of the optic cup[1,2]. Using the zebrafish as a model organism, questions regarding lens development can be addressed. The zebrafish is useful for genetic studies due to several advantageous characteristics, including small size, high fecundity, short lifecycle, and ease of care. Lens development occurs rapidly in zebrafish. By 72 hpf, the zebrafish lens is functionally mature [3]. Abundant genetic and molecular resources are available to support research in zebrafish. In addition, the similarity of the zebrafish eye to those of other vertebrates provides basis for its use as an excellent animal model of human defects[4-7]. Several zebrafish mutants exhibit lens abnormalities, including high levels of cell death, which in some cases leads to a complete degeneration of lens tissues [8]. To determine whether lens abnormalities are due to intrinsic causes or to defective interactions with the surrounding tissues, transplantation of a mutant lens into a wild-type eye is performed. Using fire-polished metal needles, mutant or wild-type lenses are carefully dissected from the donor animal, and transferred into the host. To distinguish wild-type and mutant tissues, a transgenic line is used as the donor. This line expresses membrane-bound GFP in all tissues, including the lens. This transplantation technique is an essential tool in the studies of zebrafish lens mutants.

Lens development involves interactions with other tissues. Several zebrafish eye mutants are characterized by an abnormally small lens size. Here we demonstrate a lens transplantation experiment to determine whether this phenotype is due to intrinsic causes or defective interactions with tissues that surround the lens.

レンズゼブラフィッシュでの移植とアイ変異体の解析への応用

The lens plays an important role in the development of the optic cup[1,2]. Using the zebrafish as a model organism, questions regarding lens development ...

Preparation of embryos for Electron Microscopy of the Drosophila embryonic heart tube

The morphogenesis of the Drosophila embryonic heart tube has emerged as a valuable model system for studying cell migration, cell-cell adhesion and cell shape changes during embryonic development. One of the challenges faced in studying this structure is that the lumen of the heart tube, as well as the membrane features that are crucial to heart tube formation, are difficult to visualize in whole mount embryos, due to the small size of the heart tube and intra-lumenal space relative to the embryo. The use of transmission electron microscopy allows for higher magnification of these structures and gives the advantage of examining the embryos in cross section, which easily reveals the size and shape of the lumen. In this video, we detail the process for reliable fixation, embedding, and sectioning of late stage Drosophila embryos in order to visualize the heart tube lumen as well as important cellular structures including cell-cell junctions and the basement membrane.

Preparation of embryos for Electron Microscopy of the Drosophila embryonic heart tube

We describe a process for fixation, embedding, sectioning, and imaging of late stage Drosophila embryos for Trasmission Electron Microscopy of the embryonic heart tube. This technique allows for the visualization of the heart tube lumen as well as the basement membrane, which lines the lumen of the heart.

の電子顕微鏡のための胚の調製ショウジョウバエ胎児心臓の管

The morphogenesis of the Drosophila  embryonic heart tube has emerged as a valuable model system for studying cell migration, cell-cell adhesion and cell ...

Analysis of Schwann-astrocyte Interactions Using In Vitro Assays

Schwann cells are one of the commonly used cells in repair strategies following spinal cord injuries. Schwann cells are capable of supporting axonal regeneration and sprouting by secreting growth factors 1,2 and providing growth promoting adhesion molecules 3 and extracellular matrix molecules 4. In addition they myelinate the demyelinated axons at the site of injury 5.
However following transplantation, Schwann cells do not migrate from the site of implant and do not intermingle with the host astrocytes 6,7. This results in formation of a sharp boundary between the Schwann cells and astrocytes, creating an obstacle for growing axons trying to exit the graft back into the host tissue proximally and distally. Astrocytes in contact with Schwann cells also undergo hypertrophy and up-regulate the inhibitory molecules 8-13.
In vitro assays have been used to model Schwann cell-astrocyte interactions and have been important in understanding the mechanism underlying the cellular behaviour.
These in vitro assays include boundary assay, where a co-culture is made using two different cells with each cell type occupying different territories with only a small gap separating the two cell fronts. As the cells divide and migrate, the two cellular fronts get closer to each other and finally collide. This allows the behaviour of the two cellular populations to be analyzed at the boundary. Another variation of the same technique is to mix the two cellular populations in culture and over time the two cell types segregate with Schwann cells clumped together as islands in between astrocytes together creating multiple Schwann-astrocyte boundaries.
The second assay used in studying the interaction of two cell types is the migration assay where cellular movement can be tracked on the surface of the other cell type monolayer 14,15. This assay is commonly known as inverted coverslip assay. Schwann cells are cultured on small glass fragments and they are inverted face down onto the surface of astrocyte monolayers and migration is assessed from the edge of coverslip.
Both assays have been instrumental in studying the underlying mechanisms involved in the cellular exclusion and boundary formation. Some of the molecules identified using these techniques include N-Cadherins 15, Chondroitin Sulphate proteoglycans(CSPGs) 16,17, FGF/Heparin 18, Eph/Ephrins19.
This article intends to describe boundary assay and migration assay in stepwise fashion and elucidate the possible technical problems that might occur.

Analysis of Schwann-astrocyte Interactions Using In Vitro Assays

This article intends to describe in stepwise fashion the commonly used in vitro assays used in studying Schwann cell-asrtocyte interactions.

使用シュワン-アストロサイト相互作用の解析インビトロアッセイ

Schwann cells are one of the commonly used cells in repair strategies following spinal cord injuries. Schwann cells are capable of supporting axonal ...

Endurance Training Protocol and Longitudinal Performance Assays for Drosophila melanogaster

One of the most pressing problems facing modern medical researchers is the surging levels of obesity, with the consequent increase in associated disorders such as diabetes and cardiovascular disease 1-3. An important topic of research into these associated health problems involves the role of endurance exercise as a beneficial intervention.
Exercise training is an inexpensive, non-invasive intervention with several beneficial results, including reduction in excess body fat 4, increased insulin sensitivity in skeletal muscle 5, increased anti-inflammatory and antioxidative responses 6, and improved contractile capacity in cardiomyocytes 7. Low intensity exercise is known to increase mitochondrial activity and biogenesis in humans 8 and mice, with the transcriptional coactivator PGC1-&alpha; as an important intermediate 9,10. 
Despite the importance of exercise as a tool for combating several important age-related diseases, extensive longitudinal genetic studies have been impeded by the lack of an endurance training protocol for a short-lived genetic model species. The variety of genetic tools available for use with Drosophila, together with its short lifespan and inexpensive maintenance, make it an appealing model for further study of these genetic mechanisms. With this in mind we have developed a novel apparatus, known as the Power Tower, for large scale exercise-training in Drosophila melanogaster 11. The Power Tower utilizes the flies' instinctive negative geotaxis behavior to repetitively induce rapid climbing. Each time the machine lifts, then drops, the platform of flies, the flies are induced to climb. Flies continue to respond as long as the machine is in operation or until they become too fatigued to respond. Thus, the researcher can use this machine to provide simultaneous training to large numbers of age-matched and genetically identical flies. Additionally, we describe associated assays useful to track longitudinal progress of fly cohorts during training.

Endurance Training Protocol and Longitudinal Performance Assays for Drosophila melanogaster

We describe the first endurance training protocol for an important genetic model species, Drosophila melanogaster, and outline several assays to chart improvements in mobility following training.

キイロショウジョウバエのための持久力トレーニングのプロトコルと縦パフォーマンスアッセイ

One of the most pressing problems facing modern medical researchers is the surging levels of obesity, with the consequent increase in associated disorders ...

Live Imaging of Apoptotic Cell Clearance during Drosophila Embryogenesis

The proper elimination of unwanted or aberrant cells through apoptosis and subsequent phagocytosis (apoptotic cell clearance) is crucial for normal development in all metazoan organisms. Apoptotic cell clearance is a highly dynamic process intimately associated with cell death; unengulfed apoptotic cells are barely seen in vivo under normal conditions. In order to understand the different steps of apoptotic cell clearance and to compare 'professional' phagocytes - macrophages and dendritic cells to 'non-professional' - tissue-resident neighboring cells, in vivo live imaging of the process is extremely valuable. Here we describe a protocol for studying apoptotic cell clearance in live Drosophila embryos. To follow the dynamics of different steps in phagocytosis we use specific markers for apoptotic cells and phagocytes. In addition, we can monitor two phagocyte systems in parallel: 'professional' macrophages and 'semi-professional' glia in the developing central nervous system (CNS). The method described here employs the Drosophila embryo as an excellent model for real time studies of apoptotic cell clearance.

Live Imaging of Apoptotic Cell Clearance during Drosophila Embryogenesis

Here we describe an effective method for studying dynamics of apoptotic cell clearance in vivo. This method employs live Drosophila embryos as a powerful model for monitoring phagocytosis of apoptotic cells using specific labeling of apoptotic cells and phagocytes.

アポトーシス細胞のクリアランスのイメージング中に生きる<em&gt;ショウジョウバエ</em&gt;胚

The  proper elimination of unwanted or aberrant cells through apoptosis and  subsequent phagocytosis (apoptotic cell clearance) is crucial for normal  ...

Coupled Assays for Monitoring Protein Refolding in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Proteostasis, defined as the combined processes of protein folding/biogenesis, refolding/repair, and degradation, is a delicate cellular balance that must be maintained to avoid deleterious consequences 1. External or internal factors that disrupt this balance can lead to protein aggregation, toxicity and cell death. In humans this is a major contributing factor to the symptoms associated with neurodegenerative disorders such as Huntington's, Parkinson's, and Alzheimer's diseases 10. It is therefore essential that the proteins involved in maintenance of proteostasis be identified in order to develop treatments for these debilitating diseases. This article describes techniques for monitoring in vivo protein folding at near-real time resolution using the model protein firefly luciferase fused to green fluorescent protein (FFL-GFP). FFL-GFP is a unique model chimeric protein as the FFL moiety is extremely sensitive to stress-induced misfolding and aggregation, which inactivates the enzyme 12. Luciferase activity is monitored using an enzymatic assay, and the GFP moiety provides a method of visualizing soluble or aggregated FFL using automated microscopy. These coupled methods incorporate two parallel and technically independent approaches to analyze both refolding and functional reactivation of an enzyme after stress. Activity recovery can be directly correlated with kinetics of disaggregation and re-solubilization to better understand how protein quality control factors such as protein chaperones collaborate to perform these functions. In addition, gene deletions or mutations can be used to test contributions of specific proteins or protein subunits to this process. In this article we examine the contributions of the protein disaggregase Hsp104 13, known to partner with the Hsp40/70/nucleotide exchange factor (NEF) refolding system 5, to protein refolding to validate this approach.

Coupled Assays for Monitoring Protein Refolding in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

This article describes the use of a firefly luciferase-GFP fusion protein to investigate in vivo protein folding in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Using this reagent, refolding of a model heat-denatured protein can be monitored simultaneously by fluorescence microscopy and an enzymatic assay to probe the roles of proteostasis network components in protein quality control.

のリフォールディング監視タンパク質を結合アッセイ<em&gt;サッカロミセス·セレビシエ（Saccharomyces cerevisiae）</em

Proteostasis, defined as the combined processes of protein folding/biogenesis, refolding/repair, and degradation, is a delicate cellular balance that must ...

Viability Assays for Cells in Culture

Manual cell counts on a microscope are a sensitive means of assessing cellular viability but are time-consuming and therefore expensive. Computerized viability assays are expensive in terms of equipment but can be faster and more objective than manual cell counts. The present report describes the use of three such viability assays. Two of these assays are infrared and one is luminescent. Both infrared assays rely on a 16&#160;bit Odyssey Imager. One infrared assay uses the DRAQ5 stain for nuclei combined with the Sapphire stain for cytosol and is visualized in the 700 nm channel. The other infrared assay, an In-Cell Western, uses antibodies against cytoskeletal proteins (&#945;-tubulin or microtubule associated protein 2) and labels them in the 800 nm channel. The third viability assay is a commonly used luminescent assay for ATP, but we use a quarter of the recommended volume to save on cost. These measurements are all linear and correlate with the number of cells plated, but vary in sensitivity. All three assays circumvent time-consuming microscopy and sample the entire well, thereby reducing sampling error. Finally, all of the assays can easily be completed within one day of the end of the experiment, allowing greater numbers of experiments to be performed within short timeframes. However, they all rely on the assumption that cell numbers remain in proportion to signal strength after treatments, an assumption that is sometimes not met, especially for cellular ATP. Furthermore, if cells increase or decrease in size after treatment, this might affect signal strength without affecting cell number. We conclude that all viability assays, including manual counts, suffer from a number of caveats, but that computerized viability assays are well worth the initial investment. Using all three assays together yields a comprehensive view of cellular structure and function.

Therapeutic compounds are often first examined in vitro with viability assays. Blind cell counts by a human observer can be highly sensitive to small changes in cell number but do not assess function. Computerized viability assays, as described here, can assess both structure and function in an objective manner.

培養中の細胞のための生存率アッセイ

Manual cell counts on a microscope are a sensitive means of assessing cellular viability but are time-consuming and therefore expensive. Computerized ...

A Method of Permeabilization of Drosophila Embryos for Assays of Small Molecule Activity

The Drosophila embryo has long been a powerful laboratory model for elucidating molecular and genetic mechanisms that control development. The ease of genetic manipulations with this model has supplanted pharmacological approaches that are commonplace in other animal models and cell-based assays. Here we describe recent advances in a protocol that enables application of small molecules to the developing fruit fly embryo. The method details steps to overcome the impermeability of the eggshell while maintaining embryo viability. Eggshell permeabilization across a broad range of developmental stages is achieved by application of a previously described d-limonene embryo permeabilization solvent (EPS1) and by aging embryos at reduced temperature (18 &#176;C) prior to treatments. In addition, use of a far-red dye (CY5) as a permeabilization indicator is described, which is compatible with downstream applications involving standard red and green fluorescent dyes in live and fixed preparations. This protocol is applicable to studies using bioactive compounds to probe developmental mechanisms as well as for studies aimed at evaluating teratogenic or pharmacologic activity of uncharacterized small molecules.

A Method of Permeabilization of Drosophila Embryos for Assays of Small Molecule Activity

Introduction of small molecules to the developing Drosophila embryo offers great potential for characterizing biological activity of novel compounds, drugs, and toxins as well as for probing fundamental developmental pathways. Methods described herein outline steps that overcome natural barriers to this approach, expanding the utility of the Drosophila embryo model.

の透過方法<em&gt;ショウジョウバエ</em小分子の活性のアッセイのための&gt;胚

The Drosophila embryo has long been a powerful laboratory model for elucidating molecular and genetic mechanisms that control development. The ease of ...

Generation of Marked and Markerless Mutants in Model Cyanobacterial Species

Cyanobacteria are ecologically important organisms and potential platforms for production of biofuels and useful industrial products. Genetic manipulation of cyanobacteria, especially model organisms such as Synechocystis sp. PCC6803 and Synechococcus sp. PCC7002, is a key tool for both basic and applied research. Generation of unmarked mutants, whereby chromosomal alterations are introduced into a strain via insertion of an antibiotic resistance cassette (a manipulatable fragment of DNA containing one or more genes), followed by subsequent removal of this cassette using a negative selectable marker, is a particularly powerful technique. Unmarked mutants can be repeatedly genetically manipulated, allowing as many alterations to be introduced into a strain as desired. In addition, the absence of genes encoding antibiotic resistance proteins in the mutated strain is desirable, as it avoids the possibility of 'escape' of antibiotic resistant organisms into the environment. However, detailed methods for repeated rounds of genetic manipulation of cyanobacteria are not well described in the scientific literature. Here we provide a comprehensive description of this technique, which we have successfully used to generate mutants with multiple deletions, single point mutations within a gene of interest and insertion of novel gene cassettes.

Introducing multiple genomic alterations into cyanobacteria is an essential tool in the development of strains for industrial and basic research purposes. We describe a system for generating unmarked mutants in the model cyanobacterial species Synechocystis sp. PCC6803 and marked mutants in Synechococcus sp. PCC7002.

モデルシアノバクテリア種のマークとマーカーレス変異体の生成

Cyanobacteria are ecologically important organisms and potential platforms for production of biofuels and useful industrial products. Genetic manipulation ...