DaSilva AF erhielt finanzielle Unterstützung von CTSA High-Tech-Finanzierung zu gewähren, University of Michigan, diese Überprüfung abgeschlossen ist. Volz MS wird durch einen Zuschuss Stipendium von der Stiftung Charité finanziert.

<ol>
	<li>Fregni, F., Pascual-Leone, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Technology+insight:+noninvasive+brain+stimulation+in+neurology-perspectives+on+the+therapeutic+potential+of+rTMS+and+tDCS.">Technology insight: noninvasive brain stimulation in neurology-perspectives on the therapeutic potential of rTMS and tDCS.</a> Nat Clin Pract Neurol. 3 (7), 383-383 (2007).</li><li>Wagner, T., Valero-Cabre, A., Pascual-Leone, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Noninvasive+human+brain+stimulation.">Noninvasive human brain stimulation.</a> Annu Rev Biomed Eng. 9, 527-527 (2007).</li><li>Fregni, F., Freedman, S., Pascual-Leone, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Recent+advances+in+the+treatment+of+chronic+pain+with+non-invasive+brain+stimulation+techniques.">Recent advances in the treatment of chronic pain with non-invasive brain stimulation techniques.</a> Lancet Neurol. 6 (2), 188-188 (2007).</li><li>Lefaucheur, J. P., Antal, A., Ahdab, R., Ciampi de Andra, D., Fregni, F., Khedr, E. M., Nitsche, M., Paulus, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+use+of+repetitive+transcranial+magnetic+stimulation+(rTMS)+and+transcranial+direct+current+stimulation+(tDCS)+to+relieve+pain.">The use of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) and transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) to relieve pain.</a> Brain Stimul. 1 (4), 337-337 (2008).</li><li>Antal, A., Paulus, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transcranial+magnetic+and+direct+current+stimulation+in+the+therapy+of+pain.">Transcranial magnetic and direct current stimulation in the therapy of pain.</a> Schmerz Apr. 24 (2), 161-161 (2010).</li><li>Nitsche, M. 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G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electrical+stimulation+of+excitable+tissue:+design+of+efficacious+and+safe+protocols.">Electrical stimulation of excitable tissue: design of efficacious and safe protocols.</a> J Neurosci Methods. 141 (2), 171-171 (2005).</li><li>Boggio, P. S., Khoury, L. P., Martins, D. C., Martins, O. E., de Macedo, E. C., Fregni, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Temporal+cortex+direct+current+stimulation+enhances+performance+on+a+visual+recognition+memory+task+in+Alzheimer+disease.">Temporal cortex direct current stimulation enhances performance on a visual recognition memory task in Alzheimer disease.</a> J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 80 (4), 444-444 (2009).</li><li>Fregni, F., Boggio, P. S., Nitsche, M., Bermpohl, F., Antal, A., Feredoes, E., Marcolin, M. A., Rigonatti, S. P., Silva, M. T., Paulus, W., Pascual-Leone, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Anodal+transcranial+direct+current+stimulation+of+prefrontal+cortex+enhances+working+memory.">Anodal transcranial direct current stimulation of prefrontal cortex enhances working memory.</a> Exp Brain Res. 166 (1), 23-23 (2005).</li><li>Dundas, J. E., Thickbroom, G. W., Mastaglia, F. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Perception+of+comfort+during+transcranial+DC+stimulation:+effect+of+NaCl+solution+concentration+applied+to+sponge+electrodes.">Perception of comfort during transcranial DC stimulation: effect of NaCl solution concentration applied to sponge electrodes.</a> Clin Neurophysiol. 118 (5), 1166-1166 (2007).</li><li>Minhas, P., Datta, A., Bikson, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cutaneous+perception+during+tDCS:+Role+of+electrode+shape+and+sponge+salinity.">Cutaneous perception during tDCS: Role of electrode shape and sponge salinity.</a> Clin Neurophysiol. 11, (2010).</li><li>Antal, A., Terney, D., Poreisz, C., Paulus, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Towards+unravelling+task-related+modulations+of+neuroplastic+changes+induced+in+the+human+motor+cortex.">Towards unravelling task-related modulations of neuroplastic changes induced in the human motor cortex.</a> Eur J Neurosci. 26 (9), 2687-2687 (2007).</li><li>Datta, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gyri-precise+head+model+of+transcranial+direct+current+stimulation:+improved+spatial+focality+using+a+ring+electrode+versus+conventional+rectangular+pad.">Gyri-precise head model of transcranial direct current stimulation: improved spatial focality using a ring electrode versus conventional rectangular pad.</a> Brain Stimul. 2 (4), 201-201 (2009).</li><li>Minhas, P., Bansal, V., Patel, J., Ho, J. S., Diaz, J., Datta, A., Bikson, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electrodes+for+high-definition+transcutaneous+DC+stimulation+for+applications+in+drug+delivery+and+electrotherapy,+including+tDCS.">Electrodes for high-definition transcutaneous DC stimulation for applications in drug delivery and electrotherapy, including tDCS.</a> J Neurosci Methods. 190 (2), (2010).</li><li>Brunoni, A. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+Systematic+Review+on+Reporting+and+Assessment+of+Adverse+Effects+associated+with+Transcranial+Direct+Current+Stimulation.">A Systematic Review on Reporting and Assessment of Adverse Effects associated with Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation.</a> Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. , (2011).</li><li>Wagner, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transcranial+direct+current+stimulation:+a+computer-based+human+model+study.">Transcranial direct current stimulation: a computer-based human model study.</a> Neuroimage. 35 (3), 1113-1113 (2007).</li><li>Nitsche, M. A., Doemkes, S., Karaköse, T., Antal, A., Liebetanz, D., Lang, N., Tergau, F., Paulus, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Shaping+the+effects+of+transcranial+direct+current+stimulation+of+the+human+motor+cortex.">Shaping the effects of transcranial direct current stimulation of the human motor cortex.</a> J Neurophysiol. 97 (4), 3109-3109 (2007).</li><li>Wagner, T., Fregni, F., Fecteau, S., Grodzinsky, A., Zahn, M., Pascual-Leone, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transcranial+direct+current+stimulation:+a+computer-based+human+model+study.">Transcranial direct current stimulation: a computer-based human model study.</a> Neuroimage. 35 (3), 1113-1113 (2007).</li><li>Boggio, P. S., Rigonatti, S. P., Ribeiro, R. B., Myczkowski, M. L., Nitsche, M. A., Pascual-Leone, A., Fregni, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+randomized,+double-blind+clinical+trial+on+the+efficacy+of+cortical+direct+current+stimulation+for+the+treatment+of+major+depression.">A randomized, double-blind clinical trial on the efficacy of cortical direct current stimulation for the treatment of major depression.</a> Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 11 (2), 249-249 (2008).</li><li>Williams, J. A., Pascual-Leone, A., Fregni, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Interhemispheric+modulation+induced+by+cortical+stimulation+and+motor+training.">Interhemispheric modulation induced by cortical stimulation and motor training.</a> Phys Ther. 90 (3), 398-398 (2010).</li><li>Lang, N., Nitsche, M. A., Rothwel, J. C., Williams, J. A., Lemon, R. N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effects+of+transcranial+direct+current+stimulation+over+the+human+motor+cortex+on+corticospinal+and+transcallosal+excitability.">Effects of transcranial direct current stimulation over the human motor cortex on corticospinal and transcallosal excitability.</a> Exp Brain Res. 156 (4), 439-439 (2004).</li><li>Bikson, M., Datta, A., Rahman, A., Scaturro, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electrode+montages+for+tDCS+and+weak+transcranial+electrical+stimulation:+role+of+"return"+electrode's+position+and+size.">Electrode montages for tDCS and weak transcranial electrical stimulation: role of "return" electrode's position and size.</a> Clin Neurophysiol. 121 (12), (1976).</li><li>Bikson, M., Fregni, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transcranial+direct+current+stimulation+in+patients+with+skull+defects+and+skull+plates:+high-resolution+computational+FEM+study+of+factors+altering+cortical+current+flow.">Transcranial direct current stimulation in patients with skull defects and skull plates: high-resolution computational FEM study of factors altering cortical current flow.</a> Neuroimage. 52 (4), 1268-1268 (2010).</li><li>Datta, A., Baker, J. M., Bikson, M., Fridriksson, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Individualized+model+predicts+brain+current+flow+during+transcranial+direct-current+stimulation+treatment+in+responsive+stroke+patient.">Individualized model predicts brain current flow during transcranial direct-current stimulation treatment in responsive stroke patient.</a> Brain Stimulation. , (2011).</li><li>Palm, U., Keeser, D., Schiller, C., Fintescu, Z., Nitsche, M., Reisinger, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Padberg+Skin+lesions+after+treatment+with+transcranial+direct+current+stimulation+(tDCS).">Padberg Skin lesions after treatment with transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS).</a> Brain Stimul. 1 (4), 386-386 (2008).</li><li>Datta, A., Elwassif, M., Bikson, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bio-heat+transfer+model+of+transcranial+DC+stimulation:+comparison+of+conventional+pad+versus+ring+electrode.">Bio-heat transfer model of transcranial DC stimulation: comparison of conventional pad versus ring electrode.</a> Conf Proc IEEE Eng Med Biol Soc. , 670-670 (2009).</li><li>Miranda, P. C., Faria, P., Hallett, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=What+does+the+ratio+of+injected+current+to+electrode+area+tell+us+about+current+density+in+the+brain+during+tDCS?.">What does the ratio of injected current to electrode area tell us about current density in the brain during tDCS?.</a> Clin Neurophysiol. 120 (6), 1183-1183 (2009).</li><li>Gandiga, P. C., Hummel, F. C., Cohen, L. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transcranial+DC+stimulation+(tDCS):+a+tool+for+double-blind+sham-controlled+clinical+studies+in+brain+stimulation.">Transcranial DC stimulation (tDCS): a tool for double-blind sham-controlled clinical studies in brain stimulation.</a> Clin Neurophysiol. 117 (4), 845-845 (2006).</li><li>Antal, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comparatively+weak+after-effects+of+transcranial+alternating+current+stimulation+(tACS)+on+cortical+excitability+in+humans.">Comparatively weak after-effects of transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) on cortical excitability in humans.</a> Brain Stimul. 1 (2), 97-97 (2008).</li><li>Terney, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Increasing+human+brain+excitability+by+transcranial+high-frequency+random+noise+stimulation.">Increasing human brain excitability by transcranial high-frequency random noise stimulation.</a> J Neurosci Methods. 28 (52), 14147-14147 (2008).</li><li>Fregni, F., Boggio, P. S., Mansur, C. G., Wagner, T., Ferreira, M. J., Lima, M. C., Rigonatti, S. P., Marcolin, M. A., Freedman, S. D., Nitsche, M. A., Pascual-Leone, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transcranial+direct+current+stimulation+of+the+unaffected+hemisphere+in+stroke+patients.">Transcranial direct current stimulation of the unaffected hemisphere in stroke patients.</a> Neuroreport. 16 (14), 1551-1551 (2005).</li><li>Antal, A., Terney, D., K hnl, S., Paulus, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Anodal+transcranial+direct+current+stimulation+of+the+motor+cortex+ameliorates+chronic+pain+and+reduces+short+intracortical+inhibition.">Anodal transcranial direct current stimulation of the motor cortex ameliorates chronic pain and reduces short intracortical inhibition.</a> J Pain Symptom Manage. 39 (5), (2010).</li><li>Fregni, F., Gimenes, R., Valle, A. C., Ferreira, M. J., Rocha, R. R., Natalle, L., Bravo, R., Rigonatti, S. P., Freedman, S. D., Nitsche, M. A., Pascual-Leone, A., Boggio, P. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+randomized,+sham-controlled,+proof+of+principle+study+of+transcranial+direct+current+stimulation+for+the+treatment+of+pain+in+fibromyalgia.">A randomized, sham-controlled, proof of principle study of transcranial direct current stimulation for the treatment of pain in fibromyalgia.</a> Arthritis Rheum. 54 (12), (2006).</li><li>Boggio, P. S., Zaghi, S., Lopes, M., Fregni, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Modulatory+effects+of+anodal+transcranial+direct+current+stimulation+on+perception+and+pain+thresholds+in+healthy+volunteers.">Modulatory effects of anodal transcranial direct current stimulation on perception and pain thresholds in healthy volunteers.</a> Eur J Neurol. 15 (10), 1124-1124 (2008).</li><li>Fregni, F., Liguori, P., Fecteau, S., Nitsche, M. A., Pascual-Leone, A., Boggio, P. 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Die City University of New York hält Patente auf Hirnstimulation, auf denen Marom Bikson ein Erfinder ist. Marom Bikson ist ein Mitbegründer der Soterix Medical Inc.

Kritische Schritte: Aspekte, die vor Beginn der Verfahren überprüft werden: <ul><li> Zunächst sollten die Patienten auf, ob es irgendwelche Kontraindikationen für tDCS abgeschirmt werden - diese Kontraindikationen können anwendungsspezifisch. Dazu gehören Fragen wie Vorhandensein von schweren oder häufigen Kopfschmerzen, chronische Erkrankung der Haut oder Nebenwirkungen zu einem früheren tDCS Behandlung. Wenn er oder sie hat jedes Metall in den Kopf oder einen schweren Hirnverletzung, kann die anatomischen Veränderungen Stromfluss 23,24 modifizieren. Geschichte der Beschlagnahme, Schwangerschaft und die Geschichte eines Schlaganfalls sind in der Regel nicht streng Kontraindikationen - und tatsächlich könnte Einschlusskriterien werden in einigen klinischen Studien. </li><li> Prüfen Sie, ob Läsionen auf der Kopfhaut-zusätzlich Themen sollten gezielt befragt werden und geprüft für die Existenz von Hauterkrankungen. Wenn es irgendwelche Veränderungen sind, sollten tDCS Verfahren vermieden oder gegebenenfalls sichergestellt, dass die Stimulation nicht direkt über oder über die Läsion durchgeführt werden. Stimulation von einem anderen Standort in Betracht gezogen werden. Es wird berichtet, dass täglich wiederholte tDCS klinisch signifikante Hautreizung verursacht unter den Elektroden in einigen Patienten 7. Es gibt Hinweise auf tDCS induzierte Läsionen nach Hautintegrität. Zum Beispiel hat man umfangreiche Rötung und braun knusprig intrakutane Veränderungen mit unregelmäßigen runde Formen durch tDC Stimulation mit einer Intensität von 2 mA für einen Zeitraum von 2 Wochen, darunter fünf Sitzungen pro Woche 25 dargestellt. Wenn tDCS stark angegeben ist oder durchgeführt werden, ist es möglich, zu berücksichtigen, um mit einer geringeren Intensität wie 0,5 bis 1,0 mA zu stimulieren, aber es ist nicht garantiert, dass dies Hautreizungen oder Verletzungen zu verhindern. So sollte der Zustand der Haut unter den Elektroden vor und nach tDCS 7 eingesehen werden. </li><li> Überprüfen Sie die Stecker der Kabel für die Elektrolyse. Verwenden Sie ein anderes Paar, wenn evident. Es wird empfohlen, die Kabel nach etwa zwei Monaten der Nutzung zu überprüfen. </li></ul> Während der beiden aktiven oder schein-tDCS immer fragen, ob unterliegen immer noch wohl fühlt und in der Lage ist, um den Vorgang fortzusetzen. Mögliche Änderungen: <ul><li> Es gibt viele Sorten von Elektroden Positionierung 7 (Tabelle 2). </li><li> Es gibt viele Sorten von Elektroden Größen 26 (Abbildung 7). Für eine gegebene angelegten Strom, Einflüsse Elektrode Größe der Stromdichte 18 und beeinflusst die focality von Gehirn-Modulation (Abbildung 8). Klinische Studien haben nahe, je kleiner die Größe der Elektrode, je größer die Stromdichte 26, jedoch Modeling-Studien legen nahe, dass die Beziehung zwischen Elektrode Größe und die Fläche des Gehirns Modulation kann komplizierter sein 27. Darüber hinaus können die Auswirkungen von kleinen Elektroden qualitativ unterscheiden aufgrund der unterschiedlichen Rangieren von Strom in die Kopfhaut und größere Randeffekt bezogen auf die gesamte Elektrode 7 auf. Es wurden drastisch übergeordneten Ebenen von Rangier für kleine Elektrode Größen als für die größeren Elektrode Schema 19 berichtet. </li><li> High-Definition tDCS (HD-tDCS) ist eine Technologie, die räumliche focality verbessert, sondern erfordert spezielle Hardware und verfahrenstechnische steuert 15. </li><li> Die Elektrode montage (Elektrode Position und Größe) zusammen mit dem angelegten Strom bestimmen die erzeugte elektrische Feldstärke im Gehirn, die wiederum bestimmt die Wirksamkeit von tDCS. Die Verwendung von nur Elektrode Stromdichte, durch das Verhältnis zwischen der Stromstärke und der Elektrode Größe definiert, wurde vorgeschlagen, die klinischen Ergebnisse zu normalisieren - aber Modeling-Studien legen nahe, dies kann nur über einen begrenzten Bereich gelten und dass die gesamte Elektrode Montage Design bestimmt Ergebnis. Generell zunehmende Stromstärke (oder Stromdichte) für eine gegebene Montage führen zu einer stärkeren Wirkung. Es ist wichtig zu beachten, dass die Stromdichte an der Hautoberfläche viel höher als die in das Gehirn 19 (Abbildung 9). </li><li> Die Position der &quot;Rückkehr&quot; (&quot;Referenz&quot;) Elektrode kann die gesamte Stromfluss über das Gehirn beeinflussen und somit auch Einfluss Gehirn Modulation unter der aktiven Elektroden 22. So den Trank der beiden Elektroden in Betracht gezogen werden. </li><li> Die Dauer der Stimulation hängt von dem Ziel, den experimentellen Ansatz. Eine Erhöhung der Dauer der Stimulation ist mit dem Auftreten und eine längere Dauer der Nachwirkungen 3,4 verbunden. Doch zumindest eine Studie berichtet, eine Umkehr der Auswirkungen Richtungen, wenn eine Stimulation Dauer erhöht wurde, was darauf hindeutet, dass mehr Intensität nicht unbedingt in eine stabilere klinische Ergebnis zu übersetzen. Obwohl tDCS in den veröffentlichten Parametern gilt als sicher und gut verträglich, das Potential für unerwünschte Nebenwirkungen steigt mit zunehmender Intensität (Zeit, duratiauf, oder Wiederholrate / Nummer). </li><li> Orientierung des elektrischen Feldes: definiert durch die Elektroden-Positionen und Polarität. Kathodischer Stimulation in der Regel sinkt kortikalen Erregbarkeit, während anodischer Stimulation in der Regel erhöht sich die kortikale Erregbarkeit 2,3. </li><li> Placebo: Für schein-tDCS das gleiche Protokoll höher verwendet wird. Allerdings wird der Strom für 30 Sekunden angewendet werden. Dies ist einer der Vorteile der tDCS im Vergleich zu anderen nicht-invasive Hirnstimulation Methoden. Da die entstehenden Empfindungen resultiert aus aktiven tDCS neigen dazu, nur auftreten, in einem frühen Stadium der Anwendung macht diese Schein-Methode ist es schwierig für den Patienten, die Placebo aus dem aktiven tDCS Anwendung zu unterscheiden. Diese erste und kurze Stimulation ist eine zuverlässige Methode der Placebo-28. </li><li> Beachten Sie, dass die Technik auch angewandt, wenn andere transkranielle elektrische Therapien wie tACS 29 oder tRNS 30 sein. </li></ul> Rationale für den Einsatz tDCS bei chronischen Schmerzen: Die Tatsache, dass mehrere therapeutische pharmakologische Modalitäten nur bescheidene Linderung für Patienten mit chronischen Schmerzen stellt sich die Möglichkeit, dass die Ursache für das Fortbestehen dieser behindernden Erkrankung kann innerhalb von plastischen Veränderungen in Schmerzen im Zusammenhang mit neuronalen Netzen liegen. Interessanterweise kann Modulation der kortikalen Aktivität nicht-invasiv durch tDCS erreicht werden, wie zuvor beschrieben, die berichtet wurde, um nachhaltige therapeutische Wirkung bei chronischen Schmerzen aufgrund von Änderungen in der kortikalen Plastizität zu erzeugen. Klinische Wirkung von tDCS bei chronischen Schmerzen: Es hat sich gezeigt, dass tDCS angewendet auf die motorischen Kortex der lokalen kortikalen Erregbarkeit (Abbildung 6) 6 ändert. Genauer gesagt, hat anodischer Stimulation führt zu einer Erhöhung der neuronalen Erregbarkeit, während die kathodische Stimulation gegenüber Treffer 6. Tatsächlich führt die anodische tDCS Anwendung über M1 zu einer größeren Verbesserung der visuellen Analogskala (VAS) Schmerzen Bewertungen als sham tDCS. Diese therapeutische Wirkung auf Schmerzen nach M1 Stimulation, obwohl vergänglich, wurde in mehreren Gruppen von Patienten mit neuropathischen Schmerzsyndromen wie Trigeminusneuralgie, postapoplektischen Schmerzsyndrom 31, Rückenschmerzen und Fibromyalgie 32 wiedergegeben. Interessanterweise zeigte klinischen Studien bei neuropathischen Schmerzen aufgrund einer Rückenmarksverletzung, Stimulation des motorischen Kortex durch tDCS Schmerzen Verbesserung und kumulative analgetische Wirkung, dass zwei Wochen nach der Stimulation dauerte. Es gibt auch Beweise für ihre schmerzstillende Wirkung bei Fibromyalgie-Patienten 33, der noch nach drei Wochen Follow-up für anodische tDCS der M1 im Vergleich zu sham Stimulation, und so gut wie Stimulation des DLPFC 33 signifikant. Obwohl die Auswirkungen der anodischen tDCS über DLFPC für Schmerzen Verbesserung nicht umfassend erforscht worden sind, konnte gezeigt werden, es kann zur Modulation Schmerzschwelle bei gesunden Probanden 34 sein. Dennoch wird der Anregung dieses Hirnareal eine zuverlässige Technik zur Verbesserung des Arbeitsgedächtnisses 10, Performance-Steigerung auf das Gedächtnis Aufgaben bei der Alzheimer Krankheit 9 und reduziert Spielball provoziert Rauchen Verlangen deutlich 35 für zB, deshalb ist es auch denkbar, dass dies eine sinnvolle Strategie sein zu modulieren affektiv-emotionalen kognitiven Netzen mit Schmerzverarbeitung bei Patienten mit chronischen Schmerzen verbunden.

electrode positioning and montage in transcranial direct current stimulation

Transkranielle (tDCS) ist eine Technik, die intensiv in den letzten zehn Jahren untersucht, wie diese Methode bietet eine non-invasive und sichere Alternative zu kortikalen Erregbarkeit 2 ändern. Die Auswirkungen einer Sitzung des tDCS kann mehrere Minuten dauern, und ihre Auswirkungen sind abhängig von Polarität der Stimulation, wie zum Beispiel, dass die kathodische Stimulation eine Abnahme der kortikalen Erregbarkeit induziert und anodischer Stimulation induziert eine Zunahme der kortikalen Erregbarkeit, die über die Dauer der im Mai letzten Jahres Stimulation 6. Diese Effekte wurden in den kognitiven Neurowissenschaften erforscht und auch klinisch in einer Vielzahl von neuropsychiatrischen Erkrankungen - vor allem, wenn über mehrere aufeinander folgende Sitzungen 4 aufgebracht. Ein Bereich, der schon zieht die Aufmerksamkeit von Neurowissenschaftlern und Ärzten ist die Verwendung von tDCS zur Modulation von Schmerzen im Zusammenhang mit neuronalen Netzen 3,5. Modulation von zwei kortikalen Arealen in der Schmerzforschung wurde untersucht: primären motorischen Kortex und dorsolateralen präfrontalen Kortex 7. Aufgrund der kritischen Rolle der Elektrode Montage, die in diesem Artikel zeigen wir verschiedene Alternativen für die Platzierung der Elektroden für tDCS klinischen Prüfungen mit Schmerz; diskutieren Vor-und Nachteile der einzelnen Methoden der Stimulation.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Electrode Positioning and Montage in Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation at JoVE.com

Electrode Positioning and Montage in Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation

Transkranielle (tDCS) ist ein etabliertes Verfahren zur Modulation der kortikalen Erregbarkeit<sup&gt; 1,2</sup&gt;. Es hat sich als investigative Werkzeug in den Neurowissenschaften aufgrund ihrer Auswirkungen auf die kortikale Plastizität, einfache Bedienung und sicheres Profil verwendet worden. Ein Bereich, der tDCS wurde, zeigt ermutigende Resultate ist Schmerzlinderung<sup&gt; 3-5</sup&gt;.

Electrode Positionierung und Montage in Transkranielle Direct Current Stimulation

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a technique that has been intensively investigated in the past decade as this method offers a ...

electrode-positioning-montage-transcranial-direct-current

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

261.9K Aufrufe.  University of Michigan. Transkranielle (tDCS) ist ein etabliertes Verfahren zur Modulation der kortikalen Erregbarkeit 1,2. Es hat sich als investigative Werkzeug in den Neurowissenschaften aufgrund ihrer Auswirkungen auf die kortikale Plastizität, einfache Bedienung und sicheres Profil verwendet worden. Ein Bereich, der tDCS wurde, zeigt ermutigende Resultate ist Schmerzlinderung 3-5.

Serie: Electrode Positioning and Montage in Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation

Combining Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation and fMRI to Examine the Default Mode Network

The default mode network is a group of brain regions that are active when an individual is not focused on the outside world and the brain is at "wakeful rest."1,2,3 It is thought the default mode network corresponds to self-referential or "internal mentation".2,3
It has been hypothesized that, in humans, activity within the default mode network is correlated with certain pathologies (for instance, hyper-activation has been linked to schizophrenia 4,5,6 and autism spectrum disorders 7 whilst hypo-activation of the network has been linked to Alzheimer's and other neurodegenerative diseases 8). As such, noninvasive modulation of this network may represent a potential therapeutic intervention for a number of neurological and psychiatric pathologies linked to abnormal network activation. One possible tool to effect this modulation is Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation: a non-invasive neurostimulatory and neuromodulatory technique that can transiently or lastingly modulate cortical excitability (either increasing or decreasing it) via the application of localized magnetic field pulses.9
In order to explore the default mode network's propensity towards and tolerance of modulation, we will be combining TMS (to the left inferior parietal lobe) with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Through this article, we will examine the protocol and considerations necessary to successfully combine these two neuroscientific tools.

In this article, we examine the methodology and considerations relevant to the combination of TMS and fMRI to examine the effects of brain stimulation on the default network.

Die Kombination TMS und fMRT dem Standard-Modus Netzwerk Untersuchen

The default mode network is a group of brain regions that are active when an individual is not focused on the outside world and the brain is at "wakeful ...

Forschung

Neurowissenschaften

Direct-current Stimulation and Multi-electrode Array Recording of Seizure-like Activity in Mice Brain Slice Preparation

Cathodal transcranial direct-current stimulation (tDCS) induces suppressive effects on drug-resistant seizures. To perform effective actions, the stimulation parameters (e.g., orientation, field strength, and stimulation duration) need to be examined in mice brain slice preparations. Testing and arranging the orientation of the electrode relative to the position of the mice brain slice are feasible. The present method preserves the thalamocingulate pathway to evaluate the effect of DCS on anterior cingulate cortex seizure-like activities. The results of the multichannel array recordings indicated that cathodal DCS significantly decreased the amplitude of the stimulation-evoked responses and duration of 4-aminopyridine and bicuculline-induced seizure-like activity. This study also found that cathodal DCS applications at 15 min caused long-term depression in the thalamocingulate pathway. The present study investigates the effects of DCS on thalamocingulate synaptic plasticity and acute seizure-like activities. The current procedure can test the optimal stimulation parameters including orientation, field strength, and stimulation duration in an in vitro mouse model. Also, the method can evaluate the effects of DCS on cortical seizure-like activities at both the cellular and network levels.

Studies have shown that cathodal transcranial direct-current stimulation can produce suppressive effects on drug-resistant seizures. In this study, an in vitro experimental setup was devised in which the direct-current stimulation and multielectrode array recording of seizure-like activity were evaluated in mice brain slice preparation. The direct-current stimulation parameters were evaluated.

Gleichstrom-Stimulation und Multi-Elektroden-Array-Aufnahme von Seizure-ähnliche Aktivität in Mäuse-Gehirn Scheibe Vorbereitung

Cathodal transcranial direct-current stimulation (tDCS) induces suppressive effects on drug-resistant seizures. To perform effective actions, the ...

Effects of Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation on the Primary Motor Cortex by Online Combined Approach with Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation

Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS) is a neuromodulatory technique able to act through sinusoidal electrical waveforms in a specific frequency and in turn modulate ongoing cortical oscillatory activity. This neurotool allows the establishment of a causal link between endogenous oscillatory activity and behavior. Most of the tACS studies have shown online effects of tACS. However, little is known about the underlying action mechanisms of this technique because of the AC-induced artifacts on Electroencephalography (EEG) signals. Here we show a unique approach to investigate online physiological frequency-specific effects of tACS of the primary motor cortex (M1) by using single pulse Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) to probe cortical excitability changes. In our setup, the TMS coil is placed over the tACS electrode while Motor Evoked Potentials (MEPs) are collected to test the effects of the ongoing M1-tACS. So far, this approach has mainly been used to study the visual and motor systems. However, the current tACS-TMS setup can pave the way for future investigations of cognitive functions. Therefore, we provide a step-by-step manual and video guidelines for the procedure.

Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS) allows the modulation of cortical excitability in a frequency-specific fashion. Here we show a unique approach which combines online tACS with single pulse Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) in order to "probe" cortical excitability by means of Motor Evoked Potentials.

Effekte der transkraniellen Wechselstrom Stimulation auf Primärbewegungsrinde durch Online-kombinierter Ansatz mit Transcranial magnetische Anregung

Transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS) is a neuromodulatory technique able to act through sinusoidal electrical waveforms in a specific ...

Remotely Supervised Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation: An Update on Safety and Tolerability

The remotely supervised tDCS (RS-tDCS) protocol enables participation from home through guided and monitored self-administration of tDCS treatment while maintaining clinical standards. The current consensus regarding the efficacy of tDCS is that multiple treatment sessions are needed to observe targeted behavioral reductions in symptom burden. However, the requirement for patients to travel to clinic daily for stimulation sessions presents a major obstacle for potential participants, due to work or family obligations or limited ability to travel. This study presents a protocol that directly overcomes these obstacles by eliminating the need to travel to clinic for daily sessions.
This is an updated protocol for remotely supervised self-administration of tDCS for daily treatment sessions paired with a program of computer-based cognitive training for use in clinical trials. Participants only need to attend clinic twice, for a baseline and study-end visit. At baseline, participants are trained and provided with a study stimulation device, and a small laptop computer. Participants then complete the remainder of their stimulation sessions at home while they are monitored via videoconferencing software.
Participants complete computerized cognitive remediation during stimulation sessions, which may serve a therapeutic role or as a &#34;placeholder&#34; for other computer-based activity. Computers are enabled for real-time monitoring and remote control by study staff.
Outcome measures that assess feasibility and tolerance are administered remotely with the aid of visual analogue scales that are presented onscreen. Following completion of all RS-tDCS sessions, participants return to clinic for a study end visit in which all study equipment is returned.
Results support the safety, feasibility, and scalability of the RS-tDCS protocol for use in clinical trials. Across 46 patients, 748 RS-tDCS sessions have been completed. This protocol serves as a model for use in future clinical trials involving tDCS.

This manuscript provides an updated remote supervision protocol that enables participation in transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) clinical trials while receiving treatment sessions from home. The protocol has been successfully piloted in both patients with multiple sclerosis and Parkinson&#39;s disease.

Aus der Ferne überwacht Transcranial Direct aktuelle Stimulation: Ein Update auf Sicherheit und Verträglichkeit

The remotely supervised tDCS (RS-tDCS) protocol enables participation from home through guided and monitored self-administration of tDCS treatment while ...

The Combined Use of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation and Robotic Therapy for the Upper Limb

Neurologic disorders such as stroke and cerebral palsy are leading causes of long-term disability and can lead to severe incapacity and restriction of daily activities due to lower and upper limb impairments. Intensive physical and occupational therapy are still considered main treatments, but new adjunct therapies to standard rehabilitation that may optimize functional outcomes are being studied.
Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a noninvasive brain stimulation technique that polarizes underlying brain regions through the application of weak direct currents through electrodes on the scalp, modulating cortical excitability. Increased interest in this technique can be attributed to its low cost, ease of use, and effects on human neural plasticity. Recent research has been performed to determine the clinical potential of tDCS in diverse conditions such as depression, Parkinson&#39;s disease, and motor rehabilitation after stroke. tDCS helps enhance brain plasticity and seems to be a promising technique in rehabilitation programs.
A number of robotic devices have been developed to assist in the rehabilitation of upper limb function after stroke. The rehabilitation of motor deficits is often a long process requiring multidisciplinary approaches for a patient to achieve maximum independence. These devices do not intend to replace manual rehabilitation therapy; instead, they were designed as an additional tool to rehabilitation programs, allowing immediate perception of results and tracking of improvements, thus helping patients to stay motivated.
Both tDSC and robot-assisted therapy are promising add-ons to stroke rehabilitation and target the modulation of brain plasticity, with several reports describing their use to be associated with conventional therapy and the improvement of therapeutic outcomes. However, more recently, some small clinical trials have been developed that describe the associated use of tDCS and robot-assisted therapy in stroke rehabilitation. In this article, we describe the combined methods used in our institute for improving motor performance after stroke.

The combined use of transcranial direct current stimulation and robotic therapy as an add-on for conventional rehabilitation therapy may result in improved therapeutic outcomes due to modulation of brain plasticity. In this article, we describe the combined methods used in our institute for improving motor performance after stroke.

Der kombinierte Einsatz von Transcranial Direct aktuelle Stimulation und Roboter-Therapie für die obere Extremität

Neurologic disorders such as stroke and cerebral palsy are leading causes of long-term disability and can lead to severe incapacity and restriction of ...

Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) in Mice

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a non-invasive neuromodulation technique proposed as an alternative or complementary treatment for several neuropsychiatric diseases. The biological effects of tDCS are not fully understood, which is in part explained due to the difficulty in obtaining human brain tissue. This protocol describes a tDCS mouse model that uses a chronically implanted electrode allowing the study of the long-lasting biological effects of tDCS. In this experimental model, tDCS changes the cortical gene expression and offers a prominent contribution to the understanding of the rationale for its therapeutic use.

Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation tDCS in Mice

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a therapeutic technique proposed to treat psychiatric diseases. An animal model is essential for understanding the specific biological alterations evoked by tDCS. This protocol describes a tDCS mouse model that uses a chronically implanted electrode.

Transkranielle Gleichstrom Stimulation (tDCS) bei Mäusen

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a non-invasive neuromodulation technique proposed as an alternative or complementary treatment for ...

Stimulation Location Determination using a 3D Digitizer with High-Definition Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation

The abundance of neuroimaging data and rapid development of machine learning has made it possible to investigate brain activation patterns. However, causal evidence of brain area activation leading to a behavior is often left missing. Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), which can temporarily alter brain cortical excitability and activity, is a noninvasive neurophysiological tool used to study causal relationships in the human brain. High-definition transcranial direct current stimulation (HD-tDCS) is a noninvasive brain stimulation (NIBS) technique that produces a more focal current compared to conventional tDCS. Traditionally, the stimulation location has been roughly determined through the 10-20 EEG system, because determining precise stimulation points can be difficult. This protocol uses a 3D digitizer with HD-tDCS to increase accuracy in determination of stimulation points. The method is demonstrated using a 3D digitizer for more accurate localization of stimulation points in the right temporo-parietal junction (rTPJ).

Presented here is a protocol to achieve higher accuracy in determination of stimulation location combining a 3D digitizer with high-definition transcranial direct current stimulation.

Stimulationspositionsbestimmung mit einem 3D-Digitizer mit high-Definition Transkranialer Gleichstromstimulation

The abundance of neuroimaging data and rapid development of machine learning has made it possible to investigate brain activation patterns. However, ...

In Vivo Intracellular Recording of Type-Identified Rat Spinal Motoneurons During Trans-Spinal Direct Current Stimulation

Intracellular recording of spinal motoneurons in vivo provides a &#8220;gold standard&#8221; for determining the cells&#8217; electrophysiological characteristics in the intact spinal network and holds significant advantages relative to classical in vitro or extracellular recording techniques. An advantage of in vivo intracellular recordings is that this method can be performed on adult animals with a fully mature nervous system, and therefore many observed physiological mechanisms can be translated to practical applications. In this methodological paper, we describe this procedure combined with externally applied constant current stimulation, which mimics polarization processes occurring within spinal neuronal networks. Trans-spinal direct current stimulation (tsDCS) is an innovative method increasingly used as a neuromodulatory intervention in rehabilitation after various neurological injuries as well as in sports. The influence of tsDCS on the nervous system remains poorly understood and the physiological mechanisms behind its actions are largely unknown. The application of the tsDCS simultaneously with intracellular recordings enables us to directly observe changes of motoneuron membrane properties and characteristics of rhythmic firing in response to the polarization of the spinal neuronal network, which is crucial for the understanding of tsDCS actions. Moreover, when the presented protocol includes the identification of the motoneuron with respect to an innervated muscle and its function (flexor versus extensor) as well as the physiological type (fast versus slow) it provides an opportunity to selectively investigate the influence of tsDCS on identified components of spinal circuitry, which seem to be differently affected by polarization. The presented procedure focuses on surgical preparation for intracellular recordings and stimulation with an emphasis on the steps which are necessary to achieve preparation stability and reproducibility of results. The details of the methodology of the anodal or cathodal tsDCS application are discussed while paying attention to practical and safety issues.

This protocol describes in vivo intracellular recording of rat lumbar motoneurons with simultaneous trans-spinal direct current stimulation. The method enables us to measure membrane properties and to record rhythmic firing of motoneurons before, during and after anodal or cathodal polarization of the spinal cord.

In Vivo intrazelluläre Aufzeichnung von typidentifizierten Ratten-Spinal-Motoneuronen während der Trans-Spinal-Gleichstromstimulation

Intracellular recording of spinal motoneurons in vivo provides a &#8220;gold standard&#8221; for determining the cells&#8217; electrophysiological ...

Simultaneous Application of Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation during Virtual Reality Exposure

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a form of non-invasive brain stimulation that changes the likelihood of neuronal firing through modulation of neural resting membranes. Compared to other techniques, tDCS is relatively safe, cost-effective, and can be administered while individuals are engaged in controlled, specific cognitive processes. This latter point is important as tDCS may predominantly affect intrinsically active neural regions. In an effort to test tDCS as a potential treatment for psychiatric illness, the protocol described here outlines a novel procedure that allows the simultaneous application of tDCS during exposure to trauma-related cues using virtual reality (tDCS+VR) for veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder (NCT03372460). In this double-blind protocol, participants are assigned to either receive 2 mA tDCS, or sham stimulation, for 25 minutes while passively watching three 8-minute standardized virtual reality drives through Iraq or Afghanistan, with virtual reality events increasing in intensity during each drive. Participants undergo six sessions of tDCS+VR over the course of 2-3 weeks, and psychophysiology (skin conductance reactivity) is measured throughout each session. This allows testing for within and between session changes in hyperarousal to virtual reality events and adjunctive effects of tDCS. Stimulation is delivered through a built-in rechargeable battery-driven tDCS device using a 1 (anode) x 1 (cathode) unilateral electrode set-up. Each electrode is placed in a 3 x 3 cm (current density 2.22 A/m2) reusable sponge pocket saturated with 0.9% normal saline. Sponges with electrodes are attached to the participant&#8217;s skull using a rubber headband with the electrodes placed such that they target regions within the ventromedial prefrontal cortex. The virtual reality headset is placed over the tDCS montage in such a way as to avoid electrode interference.

This manuscript outlines a novel protocol to allow the simultaneous application of transcranial direct current stimulation during exposure to warzone trauma-related cues using virtual reality for veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder.

Gleichzeitige Anwendung der transkraniellen Gleichstromstimulation während der Virtual-Reality-Exposition

Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a form of non-invasive brain stimulation that changes the likelihood of neuronal firing through ...

Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) for Memory Enhancement

Memory enhancement is one of the great challenges in cognitive neuroscience and neurorehabilitation. Among various techniques used for memory enhancement, transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is emerging as an especially promising tool for improvement of memory functions in a non-invasive manner. Here, we present a tDCS protocol that can be applied for memory enhancement in healthy-participant studies as well as in aging and dementia research. The protocol uses weak constant anodal current to stimulate cortical targets within cortico-hippocampal functional network engaged in memory processes. The target electrode is placed either on the posterior parietal cortex (PPC) or the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), while the return electrode is placed extracranially (i.e., on the contralateral cheek). In addition, we outline a more advanced method of oscillatory tDCS, mimicking a natural brain rhythm to promote hippocampus-dependent memory functions, which can be applied in a personalized and non-personalized manner. We present illustrative results of associative and working memory improvement following single tDCS sessions (20 minutes) in which the described electrode montages were used with current intensities between 1.5 mA and 1.8 mA. Finally, we discuss crucial steps in the protocol and methodological decisions that must be made when designing a tDCS study on memory.

Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation tDCS for Memory Enhancement

A protocol for memory enhancement by using transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) targeting dorsolateral prefrontal and posterior parietal cortices, as core cortical nodes within hippocampo-cortical network, is presented. The protocol has been well evaluated in healthy-participant studies and is applicable to aging and dementia research as well.

Transkranielle Gleichstromstimulation (tDCS) zur Gedächtnisverbesserung

Memory enhancement is one of the great challenges in cognitive neuroscience and neurorehabilitation. Among various techniques used for memory enhancement, ...