Name: identification of functional protein regions through chimeric protein construction
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Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Identification of Functional Protein Regions Through Chimeric Protein Construction at JoVE.com

This work was supported by the Max Planck Society and the Sch&#252;chtermann-Clinic (Bad Rothenfelde, Germany). Part of this research was originally published in the Journal of Biological Chemistry. Adrian-Segarra, J. M., Schindler, N., Gajawada, P., L&#246;rchner, H., Braun, T. &#38; P&#246;ling, J. The AB loop and D-helix in binding site III of human Oncostatin M (OSM) are required for OSM receptor activation. J. Biol. Chem. 2018; 18:7017-7029. &#169; the Authors.

1. Chimeric Protein Design
<ol>
	<li>Select a suitable protein (donor) to exchange regions with the protein of interest (recipient) The donor protein should be structurally similar, ideally belonging to the same protein family, but lacking the biological activity to be used as readout. If no structurally related proteins are known, potential candidates can be identified using an automated tool such as the Vector Alignment Search Tool (VAST)14,15
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		<li>Acc...

<ol>
	<li>Huising, M. O., Kruiswijk, C. P., Flik, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Phylogeny+and+evolution+of+class-I+helical+cytokines.">Phylogeny and evolution of class-I helical cytokines.</a> The Journal of Endocrinology. 189 (1), 1-25 (2006).</li><li>Brocker, C., Thompson, D., Matsumoto, A., Nebert, D. W., Vasiliou, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evolutionary+divergence+and+functions+of+the+human+interleukin+(IL)+gene+family.">Evolutionary divergence and functions of the human interleukin (IL) gene family.</a> Human Genomics. 5 (1), 30-55 (2010).</li><li>Bravo, J., Heath, J. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Receptor+recognition+by+gp130+cytokines.">Receptor recognition by gp130 cytokines.</a> The EMBO Journal. 19 (11), 2399-2411 (2000).</li><li>Schneider, G., Fechner, U. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Computer-based+de+novo.+design+of+drug-like+molecules.">Computer-based de novo. design of drug-like molecules.</a> Nature Reviews Drug Discovery. 4 (8), 649-663 (2005).</li><li>Heydenreich, F. M., Milju&#353;, T., Jaussi, R., Benoit, R., Mili&#263;, D., Veprintsev, D. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High-throughput+mutagenesis+using+a+two-fragment+PCR+approach.">High-throughput mutagenesis using a two-fragment PCR approach.</a> Scientific Reports. 7 (1), 6787 (2017).</li><li>Adrian-Segarra, J. M., Schindler, N., Gajawada, P., L&#246;rchner, H., Braun, T., P&#246;ling, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+AB+loop+and+D-helix+in+binding+site+III+of+human+Oncostatin+M+(OSM)+are+required+for+OSM+receptor+activation.">The AB loop and D-helix in binding site III of human Oncostatin M (OSM) are required for OSM receptor activation.</a> The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 293 (18), 7017-7029 (2018).</li><li>Wang, Y., Pallen, C. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Expression+and+characterization+of+wild+type,+truncated,+and+mutant+forms+of+the+intracellular+region+of+the+receptor-like+protein+tyrosine+phosphatase+HPTP+beta.">Expression and characterization of wild type, truncated, and mutant forms of the intracellular region of the receptor-like protein tyrosine phosphatase HPTP beta.</a> The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 267 (23), 16696-16702 (1992).</li><li>Lim, J., Yao, S., Graf, M., Winkler, C., Yang, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Structure-function+analysis+of+full-length+midkine+reveals+novel+residues+important+for+heparin+binding+and+zebrafish+embryogenesis.">Structure-function analysis of full-length midkine reveals novel residues important for heparin binding and zebrafish embryogenesis.</a> The Biochemical Journal. 451 (3), 407-415 (2013).</li><li>Kim, K. -. W., Vallon-Eberhard, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+vivo+structure/function+and+expression+analysis+of+the+CX3C+chemokine+fractalkine.">In vivo structure/function and expression analysis of the CX3C chemokine fractalkine.</a> Blood. 118 (22), 156-167 (2011).</li><li>Chollangi, S., Mather, T., Rodgers, K. K., Ash, J. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+unique+loop+structure+in+oncostatin+M+determines+binding+affinity+toward+oncostatin+M+receptor+and+leukemia+inhibitory+factor+receptor.">A unique loop structure in oncostatin M determines binding affinity toward oncostatin M receptor and leukemia inhibitory factor receptor.</a> The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 287 (39), 32848-32859 (2012).</li><li>Aasland, D., Schuster, B., Gr&#246;tzinger, J., Rose-John, S., Kallen, K. -. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Analysis+of+the+leukemia+inhibitory+factor+receptor+functional+domains+by+chimeric+receptors+and+cytokines.">Analysis of the leukemia inhibitory factor receptor functional domains by chimeric receptors and cytokines.</a> Biochemistry. 42 (18), 5244-5252 (2003).</li><li>Hermanns, H. M., Radtke, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Contributions+of+leukemia+inhibitory+factor+receptor+and+oncostatin+M+receptor+to+signal+transduction+in+heterodimeric+complexes+with+glycoprotein+130.">Contributions of leukemia inhibitory factor receptor and oncostatin M receptor to signal transduction in heterodimeric complexes with glycoprotein 130.</a> Journal of Immunology. 163 (12), 6651-6658 (1999).</li><li>Kallen, K. J., Gr&#246;tzinger, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Receptor+recognition+sites+of+cytokines+are+organized+as+exchangeable+modules.+Transfer+of+the+leukemia+inhibitory+factor+receptor-binding+site+from+ciliary+neurotrophic+factor+to+interleukin-6.">Receptor recognition sites of cytokines are organized as exchangeable modules. Transfer of the leukemia inhibitory factor receptor-binding site from ciliary neurotrophic factor to interleukin-6.</a> The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 274 (17), 11859-11867 (1999).</li><li>Gibrat, J. F., Madej, T., Bryant, S. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Surprising+similarities+in+structure+comparison.">Surprising similarities in structure comparison.</a> Current Opinion in Structural Biology. 6 (3), 377-385 (1996).</li><li>Madej, T., Lanczycki, C. 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The generation of chimeric proteins constitutes a versatile technique, which is able to go beyond the limits of truncated proteins to address questions such as the modularity of cytokine-receptor binding domains13. The design of chimeras is a key step in this kind of studies, and requires careful consideration. Preliminary studies to establish functional domains will generally require substitution of broad regions in a first phase, while smaller replacements of variable lengths are more suited to ...

Several types of proteins, including cytokines and growth factors, are grouped in families whose members share similar three-dimensional structures but often exert distinct biological functions1,2. This functional diversity is usually the consequence of small differences in amino acid composition within the molecule&#39;s active sites3. Identification of such sites and functional determinants do not only offer valuable evolutionary insights but also to design more specific agonists and inhibitors4. However, the large number of differences in residue composition frequently found between structurally related proteins complicates this task. Even though constructing large libraries containing hundreds of mutants is nowadays feasible, assessing every single residue variation and combinations of them still remains a challenging and time-consuming effort5.
Techniques assessing the functional importance of large protein regions are thus of value to reduce the number of possible residues to a manageable number6. Truncated proteins have been the most used approach to tackle this issue. Accordingly, regions are considered to be functionally relevant if the protein function under study is affected by the deletion of a particular region7,8,9. However, a major limitation of this method is that deletions can affect the protein&#39;s secondary structure, leading to misfolding, aggregation and the inability to study the intended region. A good example is a truncated version of the cytokine oncostatin M (OSM), in which an internal deletion larger than 7 residues resulted in a misfolded mutant that could not be further studied10.
The generation of chimeric proteins constitutes an alternative and innovative approach that permits the analysis of larger protein regions. The goal of this method is to exchange regions of interest in a protein by structurally related sequences in another protein, in order to assess the contribution of the replaced sections to specific biological functions. Widely used in the field of signaling receptors to identify functional domains11,12, chimeric proteins are particularly useful to study protein families with little amino acid identity but conserved secondary structure. Appropriate examples can be found in the class of interleukin-6 (IL-6) type cytokines, such as interleukin-6 and ciliary neurotrophic factor (6% sequence identity)13 or leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) and OSM (20% identity)6, on which the following protocol is based.

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	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Labcycler thermocycler</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">Sensoquest</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">011-103</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Any conventional PCR machine can be employed to carry out this protocol</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">NanoDrop 2000c UV-Vis spectrophotometer</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">ND-2000C&#160;</td>
			<td>DNA quantification</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">GeneRuler 100 bp DNA ladder</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">SM0241</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">GeneRuler DNA Ladder Mix</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">SM0331</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">AscI restriction enzyme</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">New England Biolabs</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">R0558</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">PacI restriction enzyme</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">New England Biolabs</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">R0547</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Phusion Hot Start II DNA Polymerase</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">F-549S</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">dNTP set (100 mM)</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">Invitrogen</td>
			<td>10297018</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">T4 DNA ligase</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">Promega</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">M1804</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">NucleoSpin Gel and PCR clean-up kit</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">Macherey-Nagel</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:119px;">740609</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="84">
			<td height="84" style="height:84px;width:216px;">MGC Human LIF Sequence-Verified cDNA (CloneId:7939578), glycerol stock</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">MHS6278-202857165</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">LE agarose</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">Biozym</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:119px;">840004</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Primers</td>
			<td style="width:97px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>Custom order</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Human Oncostatin M cDNA</td>
			<td style="width:97px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>Gift of Dr. Heike Hermanns (Division of Hepatology, University Hospital W&#252;rzburg, Germany)&#160;</td>
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			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">pCAGGS vector with PacI and AscI restriction sites</td>
			<td style="width:97px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>Gift of Dr. Andr&#233; Schneider (Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, Bad Nauheim, Germany)</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
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identification of functional protein regions through chimeric protein construction

The goal of this protocol encompasses the design of chimeric proteins in which distinct regions of a protein are replaced by their corresponding sequences in a structurally similar protein, in order to determine the functional importance of these regions. Such chimeras are generated by means of a nested PCR protocol using overlapping DNA fragments and adequately designed primers, followed by their expression within a mammalian system to ensure native secondary structure and post-translational modifications. 
The functional role of a distinct region is then indicated by a loss of activity of the chimera in an appropriate readout assay. In consequence, regions harboring a set of critical amino acids are identified, which can be further screened by complementary techniques (e.g. site-directed mutagenesis) to increase molecular resolution. Although limited to cases in which a structurally related protein with differing functions can be found, chimeric proteins have been successfully employed to identify critical binding regions in proteins such as cytokines and cytokine receptors. This method is particularly suitable in cases in which the protein's functional regions are not well defined, and constitutes a valuable first step in directed evolution approaches to narrow down the regions of interest and reduce the screening effort involved.

Construction and generation of a chimeric protein (Figure 1) will be exemplified with two members of the interleukin-6 cytokine family, OSM and LIF, which were the subject of a recently published study6. Figure 2 shows the three-dimensional structure of these proteins. Both molecules adopt the characteristic secondary structure of class I cytokines, with four helices (termed A to D) packed in a bundle and ...

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Identification of Functional Protein Regions Through Chimeric Protein Construction

Structurally related proteins frequently exert distinct biological functions. The exchange of equivalent regions of these proteins in order to create chimeric proteins constitutes an innovative approach to identify critical protein regions that are responsible for their functional divergence.

The goal of this protocol encompasses the design of chimeric proteins in which distinct regions of a protein are replaced by their corresponding sequences ...

Exchanging regions of structurally similar proteins to create kimeras allows us to investigate the importance of regions responsible for biological functions of the molecule to be studied. Region exchanges predoff the general secondary structure of the protein so that region's important for it's overall structure can be distinguished from those directly mediating biological functions. It can be turning into select which exact regions to be replaced.Starting with larger exchanges is usually helpful to identify the protein's key functionality. To begin the procedure, select a suitable protein as a donor to exchange regions with the protein of interest as detailed in the text protocol. Then, obtain the protein amino acid sequences of the recipient and donor proteins from the reference sequence database by first accessing the gene section in the ref seq webpage.Type the name of the protein of interest in the search box and click search. Click on the gene name for the desired species in the resulting list. Scroll down to the ref seq section to see all of the documented isoforms.Click on the sequence identifier for the isoform of interest. Scroll down and click on cds to highlight the protein coding region of the gene. On the bottom right of the screen, click on FAFSDA and copy the gene sequence.Save the DNA sequence using a suitable DNA editing software. When using the freely available APE, open the program, paste the copied sequence in the blank box, select the sequence name, and click save. Now, choose the protein regions to be substituted in the different kimeric constructs by first dividing the protein sequence of interest in distinct structural regions.To do so, download the structural data of the protein of interest from the PDBe website. Access the PDBe page for the protein and download the PDBe file by clicking download at the right side of the screen. Open the PDBe file in a molecular visualization system, like Pymol.In Pymol, display the nucleotide sequence, hide the default structural data and select the cartoon view to clearly visualize the protein's structural features. Click on the nucleotide sequence at the top of the screen to highlight different parts of the molecule, noting the amino acids corresponding to each distinctive structural feature. Now, annotate the distinct structural regions on the DNA sequence in APE by opening the DNA sequence, selecting it, and clicking ORFs translate, then click on the last amino acid of the first region to highlight its position in the DNA sequence and select the nucleotide's coding for that region.Right click on the selection and select new feature to give it a name and a color. Repeat the process for each structural region identified in the previous step. To align the residue sequences of the two proteins, first, obtain the full amino acid sequences of donor and receptor proteins in APE.As before, open the donor DNA sequence, select it, and click ORFs translate. Then, access the Clustal Omega webpage and then put the amino acid sequences of the two proteins. Each sequence should be proceeded by a text line with protein name to be properly identified.Scroll down and click submit. Retrieve the alignment file by clicking the download alignment file tab and save it. This file can be opened by any text editing program.Using the alignment file as a reference, annotate the corresponding structural regions of the donor protein in their DNA sequence. Create a copy of the annotated DNA sequence of the receptor protein and rename it as a kimeric protein. Open the renamed DNA sequence in APE.Select the region to be exchanged in the donor protein, then select the corresponding region in the renamed receptor protein. Paste the donor protein DNA sequence, and then save the changes. Design the terminal primers using a DNA editor such as APE.Create a new DNA file, initiate the end terminal primer with a leader sequence. Followed by the first restriction site selected in the vectors MCS and the optional spacer in the initial 18 to 27 base pairs of the gene of interest. In the new DNA file, design the C terminal primer sequence to start with the final 18 to 27 base pairs of the gene of interest followed by an optional spacer, the second restriction site chosen, and the leader sequence.Highlight the whole sequence, right click, and select reverse compliment to obtain the reverse primer. Now, design primers for each of the border regions in the kimeric constructs. In the DNA sequence of the kimera, highlight a 30 base pair region in the zone where the original and inserted sequences are in contact.This is comprised of 15 base pairs in each sequence. Copy the region, and paste it in a new DNA file. This sequence will be the forward primer.Make a copy of the forward primer generated in the previous step, and rename it as the reverse primer. Highlight the primer sequence, right click, and select reverse compliment to generate the reverse primer sequence. Repeat these steps for each contact zone in the kimeric DNA sequence.Generally, two sets of forward reverse primers are required to generate one kimera, unless the replacement occurs at the N terminal or C terminal regions. Prepare an individual PCR reaction mixture for each of the fragments composing the kimeric protein. First set a one point five mililiter microfuse tube on ice and pipet the different reagents of the PCR mixtures in the order listed in the text protocol.Ensure correct primers and templates are employed for each PCR reaction. Label two thin walled zero point two mililiter PCR tubes for each reaction and transfer 20 microliters of the corresponding PCR mixture in each tube. Transfer the PCR tubes into a PCR thermocycler and initiate the protocol as detailed in the text protocol.After the PCR reaction is completed, add four microliters of six x DNA loading buffer in each tube. Insert the one percent agaross gel in an electrophoresis unit and cover with TAE buffer. Carefully load the samples into the gel along with a molecular weight latter.After running the gel at 80 to 120 volts for 20 to 45 minutes, turn off the electrophoresis unit and remove the agoross gel. Visualize the amplified DNA bands under UV light. Using a razor blade, cut out the individual DNA fragments from the gel and transfer them to labeled two mililiter microfuse tubes.After using a PCR clean up kit to purify the DNA fragments, quantify the amount of DNA recovered by measuring the absorbance of the samples at 260 nanometers and 340 nanometers in a spectrofetometer. Now, perform PCR amplification to generate the kimeric DNA sequence. First, set up 50 microliters of a PCR reaction to fuse the separate constituents of the kimera as before.Employ the N terminal and C terminal primers along with 10 nanograms of each of the amplified DNA fragments. Recover and quantify the purified DNA fragment as before, in 30 microliters of nucleus free water. This fragment contains the kimeric DNA sequence flanked by the restriction sites included in the terminal primers.Generation of a kimeric protein is exemplified with two members of the inter luke and six sytokine family. Oncostaten M in leukemia inhibitory factor. The OSM lift kimera results from exchanging the BC loop region of OSM with a corresponding lift sequence.The first PCR amplification step consisted of three separate reactions. The N-terminal OSM fragment, which required N-terminal OSM forward and BC start reverse primers used OSM as the template. The LIF BC loop was obtained through BC start forward and BC N reverse primers using LIF as the template.The C-terminal OSM fragment used BC end forward and C terminal OSM reverse primers as well as OSM as the template. These purified fragments were then used as the template in the second PCR reaction along with N-terminal OSM forward and C-terminal OSM reverse primers to amplify the corresponding OSM LIF BC loop gene sequence. Following purification and transformation into e-coli, individual plasmids were isolated and screened by restriction enzyme digestion for proper insertion of the DNA fragment.Gel electrophoresis revealed positive hits that were then sent for sequence verification. Kimeric proteins have to be produced and the activity measured in a perfect factionality systems. In order to determine the importance of the replaced regions for that particular faction.This technique has been very useful and frequently applied, interfered of signally receptors in order to identify key function domains and receptor recognition sites. The number I use for DNA electrophoresis should be handled by using disposable gloves, a laboratory coat and protective eyewear.

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Research

JoVE Journal

Biochemistry

Sample Preparation for Mass Spectrometry-based Identification of RNA-binding Regions

Noncoding RNAs play important roles in several nuclear processes, including regulating gene expression, chromatin structure, and DNA repair. In most cases, the action of noncoding RNAs is mediated by proteins whose functions are in turn regulated by these interactions with noncoding RNAs. Consistent with this, a growing number of proteins involved in nuclear functions have been reported to bind RNA and in a few cases the RNA-binding regions of these proteins have been mapped, often through laborious, candidate-based methods.
Here, we report a detailed protocol to perform a high-throughput, proteome-wide unbiased identification of RNA-binding proteins and their RNA-binding regions. The methodology relies on the incorporation of a photoreactive uridine analog in the cellular RNA, followed by UV-mediated protein-RNA crosslinking, and mass spectrometry analyses to reveal RNA-crosslinked peptides within the proteome. Although we describe the procedure for mouse embryonic stem cells, the protocol should be easily adapted to a variety of cultured cells.

We describe a protocol to identify RNA-binding proteins and map their RNA-binding regions in live cells using UV-mediated photocrosslinking and mass spectrometry.

Noncoding RNAs play important roles in several nuclear processes, including regulating gene expression, chromatin structure, and DNA repair. In most ...

Biotinylated Cell-penetrating Peptides to Study Intracellular Protein-protein Interactions

Here we present a protocol to study intracellular protein-protein interactions that is based on the widely used biotin-avidin pull-down system. The modification presented includes the combination of this technique with cell-penetrating sequences. We propose to design cell-penetrating baits that can be incubated with living cells instead of cell lysates and therefore the interactions found will reflect those that occur within the intracellular context. Connexin43 (Cx43), a protein that forms gap junction channels and hemichannels is down-regulated in high-grade gliomas. The Cx43 region comprising amino acids 266-283 is responsible for the inhibition of the oncogenic activity of c-Src in glioma cells. Here we use TAT as the cell-penetrating sequence, biotin as the pull-down tag and the region of Cx43 comprised between amino acids 266-283 as the target to find intracellular interactions in the hard-to-transfect human glioma stem cells. One of the limitations of the proposed method is that the molecule used as bait could fail to fold properly and, consequently, the interactions found could not be associated with the effect. However, this method can be especially interesting for the interactions involved in signal transduction pathways because they are usually carried out by intrinsically disordered regions and, therefore, they do not require an ordered folding. In addition, one of the advantages of the proposed method is that the relevance of each residue on the interaction can be easily studied. This is a modular system; therefore, other cell-penetrating sequences, other tags, and other intracellular targets can be employed. Finally, the scope of this protocol is far beyond protein-protein interaction because this system can be applied to other bioactive cargoes such as RNA sequences, nanoparticles, viruses or any molecule that can be transduced with cell-penetrating sequences and fused to pull-down tags to study their intracellular mechanism of action.

This is a protocol to study intracellular protein-protein interactions based on the biotin-avidin pull-down system with the novelty of combining cell-penetrating sequences. The main advantage is that the target sequence is incubated with living cells instead of cell lysates and therefore the interactions will occur within the cellular context.

Here we present a protocol to study intracellular protein-protein interactions that is based on the widely used biotin-avidin pull-down system. The ...

2 in 1: One-step Affinity Purification for the Parallel Analysis of Protein-Protein and Protein-Metabolite Complexes

Cellular processes are regulated by interactions between biological molecules such as proteins, metabolites, and nucleic acids. While the investigation of protein-protein interactions (PPI) is no novelty, experimental approaches aiming to characterize endogenous protein-metabolite interactions (PMI) constitute a rather recent development. Herein, we present a protocol that allows simultaneous characterization of the PPI and PMI of a protein of choice, referred to as bait. Our protocol was optimized for Arabidopsis cell cultures and combines affinity purification (AP) with mass spectrometry (MS)-based protein and metabolite detection. In short, transgenic Arabidopsis lines, expressing bait protein fused to an affinity tag, are first lysed to obtain a native cellular extract. Anti-tag antibodies are used to pull down protein and metabolite partners of the bait protein. The affinity-purified complexes are extracted using a one-step methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE)/methanol/water method. Whilst metabolites separate into either the polar or the hydrophobic phase, proteins can be found in the pellet. Both metabolites and proteins are then analyzed by ultra-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS or UPLC-MS/MS). Empty-vector (EV) control lines are used to exclude false positives. The major advantage of our protocol is that it enables identification of protein and metabolite partners of a target protein in parallel in near-physiological conditions (cellular lysate). The presented method is straightforward, fast, and can be easily adapted to biological systems other than plant cell cultures.

Protein-protein and protein-metabolite interactions are crucial for all cellular functions. Herein, we describe a protocol that allows parallel analysis of these interactions with a protein of choice. Our protocol was optimized for plant cell cultures and combines affinity purification with mass spectrometry-based protein and metabolite detection.

Cellular processes are regulated by interactions between biological molecules such as proteins, metabolites, and nucleic acids. While the investigation of ...

A Fluorescence Fluctuation Spectroscopy Assay of Protein-Protein Interactions at Cell-Cell Contacts

A variety of biological processes involves cell-cell interactions, typically mediated by proteins that interact at the interface between neighboring cells. Of interest, only few assays are capable of specifically probing such interactions directly in living cells. Here, we present an assay to measure the binding of proteins expressed at the surfaces of neighboring cells, at cell-cell contacts. This assay consists of two steps: mixing of cells expressing the proteins of interest fused to different fluorescent proteins, followed by fluorescence fluctuation spectroscopy measurements at cell-cell contacts using a confocal laser scanning microscope. We demonstrate the feasibility of this assay in a biologically relevant context by measuring the interactions of the amyloid precursor-like protein 1 (APLP1) across cell-cell junctions. We provide detailed protocols on the data acquisition using fluorescence-based techniques (scanning fluorescence cross-correlation spectroscopy, cross-correlation number and brightness analysis) and the required instrument calibrations. Further, we discuss critical steps in the data analysis and how to identify and correct external, spurious signal variations, such as those due to photobleaching or cell movement.
In general, the presented assay is applicable to any homo- or heterotypic protein-protein interaction at cell-cell contacts, between cells of the same or different types and can be implemented on a commercial confocal laser scanning microscope. An important requirement is the stability of the system, which needs to be sufficient to probe diffusive dynamics of the proteins of interest over several minutes.

This protocol describes a fluorescence fluctuation spectroscopy-based approach to investigate interactions among proteins mediating cell-cell interactions, i.e. proteins localized in cell junctions, directly in living cells. We provide detailed guidelines on instrument calibration, data acquisition and analysis, including corrections to possible artefact sources.

A variety of biological processes involves cell-cell interactions, typically mediated by proteins that interact at the interface between neighboring ...

High Sensitivity Measurement of Transcription Factor-DNA Binding Affinities by Competitive Titration Using Fluorescence Microscopy

Accurate quantification of transcription factor (TF)-DNA interactions is essential for understanding the regulation of gene expression. Since existing approaches suffer from significant limitations, we have developed a new method for determining TF-DNA binding affinities with high sensitivity on a large scale. The assay relies on the established fluorescence anisotropy (FA) principle but introduces important technical improvements. First, we measure a full FA competitive titration curve in a single well by incorporating TF and a fluorescently labeled reference DNA in a porous agarose gel matrix. Unlabeled DNA oligomer is loaded on the top as a competitor and, through diffusion, forms a spatio-temporal gradient. The resulting FA gradient is then read out using a customized epifluorescence microscope setup. This improved setup greatly increases the sensitivity of FA signal detection, allowing both weak and strong binding to be reliably quantified, even for molecules of similar molecular weights. In this fashion, we can measure one titration curve per well of a multi-well plate, and through a fitting procedure, we can extract both the absolute dissociation constant (KD) and active protein concentration. By testing all single-point mutation variants of a given consensus binding sequence, we can survey the entire binding specificity landscape of a TF, typically on a single plate. The resulting position weight matrices (PWMs) outperform those derived from other methods in predicting in vivo TF occupancy. Here, we present a detailed guide for implementing HiP-FA on a conventional automated fluorescent microscope and the data analysis pipeline.

Here we present a novel method for determining binding affinities at equilibrium and in solution with high sensitivity on a large scale. This improves the quantitative analysis of transcription factor-DNA binding. The method is based on automated fluorescence anisotropy measurements in a controlled delivery system.

Accurate quantification of transcription factor (TF)-DNA interactions is essential for understanding the regulation of gene expression. Since existing ...

Analysis of Protein Folding, Transport, and Degradation in Living Cells by Radioactive Pulse Chase

Radioactive pulse-chase labeling is a powerful tool for studying the conformational maturation, the transport to their functional cellular location, and the degradation of target proteins in live cells. By using short (pulse) radiolabeling times (&lt;30 min) and tightly controlled chase times, it is possible to label only a small fraction of the total protein pool and follow its folding. When combined with nonreducing/reducing SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and immunoprecipitation with (conformation-specific) antibodies, folding processes can be examined in great detail. This system has been used to analyze the folding of proteins with a huge variation in properties such as soluble proteins, single and multi-pass transmembrane proteins, heavily N- and O-glycosylated proteins, and proteins with and without extensive disulfide bonding. Pulse-chase methods are the basis of kinetic studies into a range of additional features, including co- and posttranslational modifications, oligomerization, and polymerization, essentially allowing the analysis of a protein from birth to death. Pulse-chase studies on protein folding are complementary with other biochemical and biophysical methods for studying proteins in vitro by providing increased temporal resolution and physiological information. The methods as described within this paper are adapted easily to study the folding of almost any protein that can be expressed in mammalian or insect-cell systems.

Here we describe a protocol for a general pulse-chase method that allows the kinetic analysis of folding, transport, and degradation of proteins to be followed in live cells.

Radioactive pulse-chase labeling is a powerful tool for studying the conformational maturation, the transport to their functional cellular location, and ...

Application of Biolayer Interferometry (BLI) for Studying Protein-Protein Interactions in Transcription

A transcription factor&#160;(TF) is a protein that regulates gene expression by interacting with the RNA polymerase, another TF, and/or template DNA. GrgA is a novel transcription activator found specifically in the obligate intracellular bacterial pathogen Chlamydia. Protein pulldown assays using affinity beads have revealed that GrgA binds two &#963; factors, namely &#963;66 and &#963;28, which recognize different sets of promoters for genes whose products are differentially required at developmental stages. We have used BLI to confirm and further characterize the interactions. BLI demonstrates several advantages over pulldown: 1) It reveals real-time association and dissociation between binding partners, 2) It generates quantitative kinetic parameters, and 3) It can detect bindings that pulldown assays often fail to detect. These characteristics have enabled us to deduce the physiological roles of GrgA in gene expression regulation in Chlamydia, and possible detailed interaction mechanisms. We envision that this relatively affordable technology can be extremely useful for studying transcription and other biological processes.

Application of Biolayer Interferometry BLI for Studying Protein-Protein Interactions in Transcription

Interactions of transcription factors (TFs) with the RNA polymerase are usually studied using pulldown assays. We apply a Biolayer Interferometry (BLI) technology to characterize the interaction of GrgA with the chlamydial RNA polymerase. Compared to pulldown assays, BLI detects real-time association and dissociation, offers higher sensitivity, and is highly quantitative.

A transcription factor&#160;(TF) is a protein that regulates gene expression by interacting with the RNA polymerase, another TF, and/or template DNA. GrgA ...

Evaluation of Protein&#8211;Protein Interactions using an On-Membrane Digestion Technique

Numerous intracellular proteins physically interact in accordance with their intracellular and extracellular circumstances. Indeed, cellular functions largely depend on intracellular protein&#8211;protein interactions. Therefore, research regarding these interactions is indispensable to facilitating the understanding of physiologic processes. Co-precipitation of associated proteins, followed by mass spectrometry (MS) analysis, enables the identification of novel protein interactions. In this study, we have provided details of the novel technique of immunoprecipitation-liquid chromatography (LC)-MS/MS analysis combined with on-membrane digestion for the analysis of protein&#8211;protein interactions. This technique is suitable for crude immunoprecipitants and can improve the throughput of proteomic analyses. Tagged recombinant proteins were precipitated using specific antibodies; next, immunoprecipitants blotted onto polyvinylidene difluoride membrane pieces were subjected to reductive alkylation. Following trypsinization, the digested protein residues were analyzed using LC-MS/MS. Using this technique, we were able to identify several candidate associated proteins. Thus, this method is convenient and useful for the characterization of novel protein&#8211;protein interactions.

Evaluation of Protein&amp;#8211;Protein Interactions using an On-Membrane Digestion Technique

Here, we present a protocol for an on-membrane digestion technique for the preparation of samples for mass spectrometry. This technique facilitates the convenient analysis of protein&#8211;protein interactions.

Numerous intracellular proteins physically interact in accordance with their intracellular and extracellular circumstances. Indeed, cellular functions ...

Creating Highly Specific Chemically Induced Protein Dimerization Systems by Stepwise Phage Selection of a Combinatorial Single-Domain Antibody Library

Protein dimerization events that occur only in the presence of a small-molecule ligand enable the development of small-molecule biosensors for the dissection and manipulation of biological pathways. Currently, only a limited number of chemically induced dimerization (CID) systems exist and engineering new ones with desired sensitivity and selectivity for specific small-molecule ligands remains a challenge in the field of protein engineering. We here describe a high throughput screening method, combinatorial binders-enabled selection of CID (COMBINES-CID), for the de novo engineering of CID systems applicable to a large variety of ligands. This method uses the two-step selection of a phage-displayed combinatorial nanobody library to obtain 1) &#34;anchor binders&#34; that first bind to a ligand of interest and then 2) &#34;dimerization binders&#34; that only bind to anchor binder-ligand complexes. To select anchor binders, a combinatorial library of over 109 complementarity-determining region (CDR)-randomized nanobodies is screened with a biotinylated ligand and hits are validated with the unlabeled ligand by bio-layer interferometry (BLI). To obtain dimerization binders, the nanobody library is screened with anchor binder-ligand complexes as targets for positive screening and the unbound anchor binders for negative screening. COMBINES-CID is broadly applicable to select CID binders with other immunoglobulin, non-immunoglobulin, or computationally designed scaffolds to create biosensors for in vitro and in vivo detection of drugs, metabolites, signaling molecules, etc.

Creating chemically induced protein dimerization systems with desired affinity and specificity for any given small molecule ligand would have many biological sensing and actuation applications. Here, we describe an efficient, generalizable method for de novo engineering of chemically induced dimerization systems via the stepwise selection of a phage-displayed combinatorial single-domain antibody library.

Protein dimerization events that occur only in the presence of a small-molecule ligand enable the development of small-molecule biosensors for the ...

Native Cell Membrane Nanoparticles System for Membrane Protein-Protein Interaction Analysis

Protein-protein interactions in cell membrane systems play crucial roles in a wide range of biological processes- from cell-to-cell interactions to signal transduction; from sensing environmental signals to biological response; from metabolic regulation to developmental control. Accurate structural information of protein-protein interactions is crucial for understanding the molecular mechanisms of membrane protein complexes and for the design of highly specific molecules to modulate these proteins. Many in vivo and in vitro approaches have been developed for the detection and analysis of protein-protein interactions. Among them the structural biology approach is unique in that it can provide direct structural information of protein-protein interactions at the atomic level. However, current membrane protein structural biology is still largely limited to detergent-based methods. The major drawback of detergent-based methods is that they often dissociate or denature membrane protein complexes once their native lipid bilayer environment is removed by detergent molecules. We have been developing a&#160;native cell membrane nanoparticle system for membrane protein structural biology. Here, we demonstrate the use of this system in the analysis of protein-protein interactions on the cell membrane with a case study of the oligomeric state of AcrB.

Presented here is a protocol for the determination of oligomeric state of membrane proteins that utilizes a native cell membrane nanoparticle system in conjunction with electron microscopy.

Protein-protein interactions in cell membrane systems play crucial roles in a wide range of biological processes- from cell-to-cell interactions to signal ...