Name: quantifying bacterial surface swarming motility on inducer gradient plates
Uploaded: 2022-01-05T13:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Quantifying Bacterial Surface Swarming Motility on Inducer Gradient Plates at JoVE.com

The development of this technique was supported by the funds from the Ministry of Science and Technology&#39;s National Key R&#38;D plan (2018YFA0902604), National Natural Science Foundation of China&#39;s Research Fund for International Young Scientists (22050410270) and Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology External Funds (DWKF20190001). We would like to offer our sincere gratitude to Miss Chen Xinyi for her assistance in proofreading the document and laboratory management.

1. Preparation of gradient swarm plates
<ol>
	<li>Preparation of swarm medium 
	NOTE: See the discussion section for a brief comparison of different medium viscosities; 0.7% (w/v) agar concentration of swarm medium was used in this protocol.
	<ol>
		<li>Prepare Lysogeny broth (LB) powder with agar in two conical flasks; each flask contains 2 g of tryptone, 2 g of sodium chloride, 1 g of yeast extract, and 1.4 g of agar. Add double-distilled water (ddH2O) and stir the suspension using a ...

<ol>
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V., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Quorum+sensing+regulated+swarming+motility+and+migratory+behavior+in+bacteria.">Quorum sensing regulated swarming motility and migratory behavior in bacteria.</a> Implication of quorum sensing system in biofilm formation and virulence. , 49-66 (2018).</li><li>Lindum, P. W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=N-Acyl-L-homoserine+lactone+autoinducers+control+production+of+an+extracellular+lipopeptide+biosurfactant+required+for+swarming+motility+of+Serratia+liquefaciens+MG1.">N-Acyl-L-homoserine lactone autoinducers control production of an extracellular lipopeptide biosurfactant required for swarming motility of Serratia liquefaciens MG1.</a> Journal of Bacteriology. 180 (23), 6384-6388 (1998).</li><li>Wang, W. B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inhibition+of+swarming+and+virulence+factor+expression+in+Proteus+mirabilis+by+resveratrol.">Inhibition of swarming and virulence factor expression in Proteus mirabilis by resveratrol.</a> Journal of Medical Microbiology. 55, 1313-1321 (2006).</li><li>Zahringer, F., Massa, C., Schirmer, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Efficient+enzymatic+production+of+the+bacterial+second+messenger+c-di-GMP+by+the+diguanylate+cyclase+YdeH+from+E.+coli.">Efficient enzymatic production of the bacterial second messenger c-di-GMP by the diguanylate cyclase YdeH from E. coli.</a> Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology. 163 (1), 71-79 (2011).</li><li>Kuchma, S. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cyclic+di-GMP-mediated+repression+of+swarming+motility+by+Pseudomonas+aeruginosa+PA14+requires+the+MotAB+stator.">Cyclic di-GMP-mediated repression of swarming motility by Pseudomonas aeruginosa PA14 requires the MotAB stator.</a> Journal of Bacteriology. 197 (3), 420-430 (2015).</li><li>Heering, J., Alvarado, A., Ringgaard, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Induction+of+cellular+differentiation+and+single+cell+imaging+of+Vibrio+parahaemolyticus+swimmer+and+swarmer+cells.">Induction of cellular differentiation and single cell imaging of Vibrio parahaemolyticus swimmer and swarmer cells.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments: JoVE. (123), e55842 (2017).</li><li>Bru, J. L., Siryaporn, A., H&#248;yland-Kroghsbo, N. 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T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Swarming+of+Pseudomonas+aeruginosa+is+controlled+by+a+broad+spectrum+of+transcriptional+regulators,+including+MetR.">Swarming of Pseudomonas aeruginosa is controlled by a broad spectrum of transcriptional regulators, including MetR.</a> Journal of Bacteriology. 191 (18), 5592-5602 (2009).</li><li>Delprato, A. M., Samadani, A., Kudrolli, A., Tsimring, L. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Swarming+ring+patterns+in+bacterial+colonies+exposed+to+ultraviolet+radiation.">Swarming ring patterns in bacterial colonies exposed to ultraviolet radiation.</a> Physical Review Letters. 87 (15), 158102 (2001).</li><li>Araujo Neto, L. A., Pereira, T. M., Silva, L. 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Investigation of bacterial swarming motility on semisolid gradient plates can be a challenging task18,19,20, as it involves multiple factors such as substrate viscosity, humidity, and medium components. Among these factors, agar concentration plays a decisive role in determining microbial reversion to either swimming or swarming motility. As the agar concentration increases from 0.3% (w/v) to 1% (w/v), bacterial swimming motilit...

Bacterial swarming motility refers to the collective migration of bacterial cells across the surface of a substance. In addition to semisolid agar plates specially prepared in the laboratory1, this phenotype is also observed on some soft substrates such as animal tissues2, hydrated surfaces3, and plant roots4. While a semisolid surface is considered one of the fundamental conditions for bacterial swarming, some species also require an energy-rich medium to support their swarming motility5. Flagella rotation powers both swimming and swarming motility-swimming describes the unicellular motility within a liquid environment, whereas swarming is the synchronous movement of a microbial population across semisolid surfaces.
Substrate viscosity influences bacterial motility; studies of pathogenic microbes, such as Helicobacter pylori,&#160;have shown that the pathogen&#39;s motility changes depending on the mucin layer viscosity, which is influenced by environmental acidification in the human host6. To replicate these environments, earlier studies using agar concentration above 0.3% (w/v) restrict bacterial swimming motility to effect a gradual shift into surface swarming. The use of agar concentration above 1% (w/v) prevents the swarming motility of many species7. The colony patterns formed on the surface are diverse, including featureless mat8, bull&#39;s eye9, dendrites10, and vortex11.
Although the relevance of such patterns remains unclear, those patterns seem to be dependent on environmental and chemical cues12. Environmental cues cover different aspects, including temperature, salinity, light, and pH, whereas chemical cues include the presence of microbial quorum sensing molecules, biochemical byproducts, and nutrients. Autoinducer quorum sensing signaling molecules such as AHL (N-hexanoyl-L homoserine lactone) can impact surface swarming by regulating the production of surfactant13,14. Resveratrol, a phytoalexin compound, could restrict bacterial swarming motility15.
In the present work, we investigate the effect of gradient concentrations of resveratrol on wild-type Escherichia coli K12 strain and investigate arabinose-inducible swarming motility of engineered E. coli K12-YdeH and Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1-YdeH species. The production of the YdeH enzyme is induced by arabinose via the araBAD promoter, resulting in cellular c-di-GMP perturbation and affecting bacterial swarming motility16,17. This inducible swarming behavior is studied using arabinose gradient swarm plates with E. coli K12-YdeH and P. aeruginosa PAO1-YdeH strains.
The gradient swarm plates are prepared by successively solidifying double-layer medium (Figure 1B). The bottom layer comprises the medium added with the inducer, poured on one side of a propped-up Petri dish. Upon the solidification of the bottom layer, the Petri dish is returned to a flat surface, where the upper layer containing the medium without the inducer is added from the other side of the plate. After the swarm plates are completely solidified, isometrically arranged holding-wells are produced by boring holes on the swarm plates following a fixed layout (Figure 1C) or by imprinting the wells using a 3D printed model of the plate cover containing pegs during the medium curing process (Supplemental Figure S1). A gel imaging system is used to capture the swarming morphologies at different time points (Figure 2). Analysis of surface swarming using ImageJ software (Supplemental Figure S2) provides quantitative results of the surface swarming process (Figure 3).
Thus, we propose a simple method to test surface swarming motility within a concentration range of inducers. This method can be used to test multiple concentration responses of other inducers by mixing the inducer into the bottom-layer medium and can be applied to other motile species (e.g., Bacillus subtilis, Salmonella enterica, Proteus mirabilis, Yersinia enterocolitica). This approach could provide reliable qualitative and quantitative results for screening a single chemical inducer, and separate plates may be employed to evaluate more chemical inducers.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Agar</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>V900500</td>
			<td>500 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ampicillin</td>
			<td>Solarbio</td>
			<td>A8180</td>
			<td>25 g, &#8805; 85% (GC)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Centrifuge tube</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>430790</td>
			<td>15 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cryogenic vial</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>430488</td>
			<td>2 mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO)</td>
			<td>Aladdin</td>
			<td>D103272</td>
			<td>AR, &#62; 99% (GC)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>L(+)-Arabinose</td>
			<td>Aladdin</td>
			<td>A106195</td>
			<td>98% (GC), 500 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Petri dishes</td>
			<td>Bkman</td>
			<td>B-SLPYM90-15</td>
			<td>Plastic Petri dishes,circular,90 mm x 15 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Resveratrol</td>
			<td>Aladdin</td>
			<td>R107315</td>
			<td>99% (GC), 25 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium chloride</td>
			<td>Macklin</td>
			<td>S805275</td>
			<td>AR, 99.5% (GC), 500 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Square Petri dishes</td>
			<td>Bkman</td>
			<td>B-SLPYM130F</td>
			<td>Plastic Petri dishes, square, 13 mm x 13 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tryptone</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific Oxoid</td>
			<td>LP0042</td>
			<td>500 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Yeast extract</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific Oxoid</td>
			<td>LP0021</td>
			<td>500 g</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Equipments</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Biochemical incubator</td>
			<td>Blue pard</td>
			<td>LRH-70</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tanon 5200multi imaging system</td>
			<td>Tanon</td>
			<td>5200CE</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Thermostatic water bath</td>
			<td>Jinghong</td>
			<td>DK-S28</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

quantifying bacterial surface swarming motility on inducer gradient plates

Bacterial swarming motility is a common microbiological phenotype that bacterial communities use to migrate over semisolid surfaces. In investigations of induced swarming motility, specific concentration&#160;of an inducer may not be able to report events occurring within the optimal concentration range to elicit the desired responses from a species. Semisolid plates containing multiple concentrations are commonly used to investigate the response within an inducer concentration range. However, separate semisolid plates increase variations in medium viscosity and moisture content within each plate due to nonuniform solidification time.
This paper describes a one-step method to simultaneously test surface swarming motility on a single gradient plate, where the isometrically arranged test wells allow the simultaneous acquisition of multiconcentration responses. In the present work, the surface swarming of Escherichia coli K12 and Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1 were evaluated in response to a concentration gradient of inducers such as resveratrol and arabinose. Periodically, the swarm morphologies were imaged using an imaging system to capture the entire surface swarming process.
The quantitative measurement of the swarm morphologies was acquired using ImageJ software, providing analyzable information of the swarm area. This paper presents a simple gradient swarm plate method that provides qualitative and quantitative information about the inducers&#39; effects on surface swarming, which can be extended to study the effects of other inducers on a broader range of motile bacterial species.

The workflow consisting of the preparation of gradient swarm plates, inoculation, and incubation is shown in Figure 1B. To generate gradient swam plates, the bottom-layer medium is poured into propped-up dishes at ~4.3&#176; from the horizontal plane (Supplemental Figure S3), followed by pouring the upper-layer medium after the bottom layer is completely solidified. The composition of the double-layer medium is shown in Table 1. Then, bacterial culture cultu...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Quantifying Bacterial Surface Swarming Motility on Inducer Gradient Plates at JoVE.com

Quantifying Bacterial Surface Swarming Motility on Inducer Gradient Plates

Here, we describe the use of inducer gradient plates to evaluate bacterial swarming motility while simultaneously obtaining multiple concentration responses.

Bacterial swarming motility is a common microbiological phenotype that bacterial communities use to migrate over semisolid surfaces. In investigations of ...

The protocol simultaneously tracks bacterial swarming responses to different inducer concentrations on a semisolid agar. This is achieved in a cost-effective manner. This high throughput screening technique negates the need of agar with various inducer concentrations to observe the microchemotactic responses.The technique is designed for drug screening and also to observe the micropathogen SD responses. Also, it can be used to study microresponses to various biochemical cues in the human host. This method can provide insight into bacterial chemotaxis.Bacteria will respond to various concentrations of chemical attractants known as positive chemotaxis or chemical repellents known as negative chemotaxis. A carefully prepared set up is essential to avoid a variations between the gel angle of the lower layer to prevent the reproducability issue. To begin, label 13 by 13 centimeter square Petri dishes with stains and inducer names.Then prop the dishes up over the edge of the lids. Add arabinose solution to warm bottom layer medium. Add 40 milliliters of warm bottom layer medium.Allow the bottom layer medium to cure uncovered for one hour inside a laminar flow hood undisturbed. Once the bottom layer is completely solidified, remove the lids and lay the Petri dishes inside a laminar flow hood. Add 40 milliliters of warm upper layer medium using a motorized pipette filter.Cure the double layer plates covered and undisturbed for one hour, then store them at four degree Celsius for 24 hours. Place the marked A4 paper under a well solidified gradient plate. Push the broader side of a 100 microliter pipette tip into the semisolid medium surface at the marked position and press the pipette tip until it reaches the bottom of the upper layer medium.When the tip touches the bottom, stop applying any vertical force to the tip and gently rotate the tip to isolate the content of the cylindrical well. Horizontally move the pipette tip along a small distance to allow airflow into the narrow place set aside. Press the tip with the index finger to block the gas flow inside the tip.Pull the tip out vertically, keeping the well content in the tip while pulling it out. Add 80 microliters of the overnight growth culture into every well. Take the swarm plates out of the incubator one at a time every 12 hours and place them in the gel imaging system.Select gel imaging mode, expose the swarm plate to white light, and adjust the focal length to obtain a clear view of swarms. Enhance the brightness of the swarms for precise observation by adjusting the exposure time to 300 milliseconds. Adjust the threshold to minimize interference from the background light.Save the image file for further analysis. Record the imaging time, inducer type, gradient orientation, and strains in a txt file. Click Process, then Shadows to enhance the sharpness of the image.Click on Process followed by Batch to process the image. Then process an image as a reference by clicking on Process, Shadows, and South. Click Process, Batch, Macro to open the Batch Process window.Look for the commands displayed in the window. Type the folder address of the original images in the output file address by clicking Process in the Batch Process window. Use the wand tracing tool to select swarms individually and double click on the wand tracing tool to adjust the tolerance until the generated line fits the swarm boundary correctly.Click on Analyze, then Measure to export the area value. E.coli K12 YdeH was tested on arabinose gradient plates used to demonstrate the surface swarming process with overlap occurring between adjacent wells. A plate with three test wells enabled the formation of non-overlapping boundaries.P.aeruginosa PAO1 YdeH swarming motility was promoted with increased arabinose concentration from the lowest concentration, but gradually restricted with higher concentrations arabinose concentrations. E.coli K12 wild type strains tested on resveratrol gradient plates within the zero to 400 microliter concentration range showed a modest restriction of the swarming motility with increasing resveratrol concentration. Swarm areas were quantified by ImageJ software.The swarming curve displayed the multiple concentration responses. The most crucial part of this procedure is manufacturing a double layer swarm plate with a specific concentration range of inducers. This method enables researchers to investigate the induced surface swarming within a specific concentration range and to quantify the effects of other inducers and components on swarming.

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Caenorhabditis elegans is a useful organism for testing chemical effects on physiology. Whole organism small molecule screens offer significant advantages ...

Assessing the Viability of a Synthetic Bacterial Consortium on the In Vitro Gut Host-microbe Interface

The interplay between host and microbiota has been long recognized and extensively described. The mouth is similar to other sections of the gastrointestinal tract, as resident microbiota occurs and prevents colonisation by exogenous bacteria. Indeed, more than 600 species of bacteria are found in the oral cavity, and a single individual may carry around 100 different at any time. Oral bacteria possess the ability to adhere to the various niches in the oral ecosystem, thus becoming integrated within the resident microbial communities, and favouring growth and survival. However, the flow of bacteria into the gut during swallowing has been proposed to disturb the balance of the gut microbiota. In fact, oral administration of P. gingivalis shifted bacterial composition in the ileal microflora. We used a synthetic community as a simplified representation of the natural oral ecosystem, to elucidate the survival and viability of oral bacteria subjected to simulated gastrointestinal transit conditions. Fourteen species were selected, subjected to in vitro salivary, gastric, and intestinal digestion processes, and presented to a multicompartment cell model containing Caco-2 and HT29-MTX cells to simulate the gut mucosal epithelium. This model served to unravel the impact of swallowed bacteria on cells involved in the enterohepatic circulation. Using synthetic communities allows for controllability and reproducibility. Thus, this methodology can be adapted to assess pathogen viability and subsequent inflammation-associated changes, colonization capacity of probiotic mixtures, and ultimately, potential bacterial impact on the presystemic circulation.

Assessing the Viability of a Synthetic Bacterial Consortium on the In Vitro Gut Host-microbe Interface

Gut host-microbe interactions were assessed using a novel approach combining a synthetic oral community, in vitro gastrointestinal digestion, and a model of the small intestine epithelium. We present a method that can be adapted to evaluate cell invasion of pathogens and multi-species biofilms, or even to test probiotic formulations&#39; survivability.

The interplay between host and microbiota has been long recognized and extensively described. The mouth is similar to other sections of the ...

Visualizing Surface T-Cell Receptor Dynamics Four-Dimensionally Using Lattice Light-Sheet Microscopy

The signaling and function of a cell are dictated by the dynamic structures and interactions of its surface receptors. To truly understand the structure-function relationship of these receptors in situ, we need to visualize and track them on the live cell surface with enough spatiotemporal resolution. Here we show how to use recently developed Lattice Light-Sheet Microscopy (LLSM) to image T-cell receptors (TCRs) four-dimensionally (4D, space and time) at the live cell membrane. T cells are one of the main effector cells of the adaptive immune system, and here we used T cells as an example to show that the signaling and function of these cells are driven by the dynamics and interactions of the TCRs. LLSM allows for 4D imaging with unprecedented spatiotemporal resolution. This microscopy technique therefore can be generally applied to a wide array of surface or intracellular molecules of different cells in biology.

The goal of this protocol is to show how to use Lattice Light-Sheet Microscopy to four-dimensionally visualize surface receptor dynamics in live cells. Here T cell receptors on CD4+ primary T cells are shown.

The signaling and function of a cell are dictated by the dynamic structures and interactions of its surface receptors. To truly understand the ...

A Planarian Motility Assay to Gauge the Biomodulating Properties of Natural Products

A straightforward, controllable means of using the non-parasitic planarian, Dugesia tigrina, a free-living aquatic flatworm, to study the stimulant and withdrawal properties of natural products is described. Experimental assays benefitting from unique aspects of planarian physiology have been applied to studies on wound healing, regeneration, and tumorigenesis. In addition, because planarians exhibit sensitivity to a variety of environmental stimuli and are capable of learning and developing conditioned responses, they can be used in behavioral studies examining learning and memory. Planarians possess a basic bilateral symmetry and a central nervous system that uses neurotransmitter systems amenable to studies examining the effects of neuromuscular biomodulators. Consequently, experimental systems monitoring planarian movement and motility have been developed to examine substance addiction and withdrawal. Because planarian motility offers the potential for a sensitive, easily standardized motility assay system to monitor the effect of stimuli, the planarian locomotor velocity (pLmV) test was adapted to monitor both stimulation and withdrawal behaviors by planarians through the determination of the number of grid lines crossed by the animals with time. Here, the technique and its application are demonstrated and explained.

Planarian motility is used to gauge the stimulant and withdrawal properties of natural products when compared to the movement of the animals in spring water alone.

A straightforward, controllable means of using the non-parasitic planarian, Dugesia tigrina, a free-living aquatic flatworm, to study the stimulant and ...

Cell Fractionation of U937 Cells by Isopycnic Density Gradient Purification

This protocol describes a method to obtain subcellular protein fractions from mammalian cells using a combination of detergents, mechanical lysis, and isopycnic density gradient centrifugation. The major advantage of this procedure is that it does not rely on the sole use of solubilizing detergents to obtain subcellular fractions. This makes it possible to separate the plasma membrane from other membrane-bound organelles of the cell. This procedure will facilitate the determination of protein localization in cells with a reproducible, scalable, and selective method. This method has been successfully used to isolate cytosolic, nuclear, mitochondrial, and plasma membrane proteins from the human monocyte cell line, U937. Although optimized for this cell line, this procedure may serve as a suitable starting point for the subcellular fractionation of other cell lines. Potential pitfalls of the procedure and how to avoid them are discussed as are alterations that may need to be considered for other cell lines.

This fractionation protocol will allow researchers to isolate cytoplasmic, nuclear, mitochondrial, and membrane proteins from mammalian cells. The latter two subcellular fractions are further purified via isopycnic density gradient.

This protocol describes a method to obtain subcellular protein fractions from mammalian cells using a combination of detergents, mechanical lysis, and ...

Myosin-Specific Adaptations of In vitro Fluorescence Microscopy-Based Motility Assays

Myosin proteins bind and interact with filamentous actin (F-actin) and are found in organisms across the phylogenetic tree. Their structure and enzymatic properties are adapted for the particular function they execute in cells. Myosin 5a processively walks on F-actin to transport melanosomes and vesicles in cells. Conversely, nonmuscle myosin 2b operates as a bipolar filament containing approximately 30 molecules. It moves F-actin of opposite polarity toward the center of the filament, where the myosin molecules work asynchronously to bind actin, impart a power stroke, and dissociate before repeating the cycle. Nonmuscle myosin 2b, along with its other nonmuscle myosin 2 isoforms, has roles that include&#160;cell adhesion, cytokinesis, and tension maintenance. The mechanochemistry of myosins can be studied by performing in vitro motility assays using purified proteins. In the gliding actin filament assay, the myosins are bound to a microscope coverslip surface and translocate fluorescently labeled F-actin, which can be tracked. In the single molecule/ensemble motility assay, however, F-actin is bound to a coverslip and the movement of fluorescently labeled myosin molecules on the F-actin is observed. In this report, the purification of recombinant myosin 5a from Sf9 cells using affinity chromatography is outlined. Following this, we outline two fluorescence microscopy-based assays: the gliding actin filament assay and the inverted motility assay. From these assays, parameters such as actin translocation velocities and single molecule run lengths and velocities can be extracted using the image analysis software. These techniques can also be applied to study the movement of single filaments of the nonmuscle myosin 2 isoforms, discussed herein in the context of nonmuscle myosin 2b. This workflow represents a protocol and a set of quantitative tools that can be used to study the single molecule and ensemble dynamics of nonmuscle myosins.

Presented here is a procedure to express and purify myosin 5a followed by a discussion of its characterization, using both ensemble and single molecule in vitro fluorescence microscopy-based assays, and how these methods can be modified for the characterization of nonmuscle myosin 2b.

Myosin proteins bind and interact with filamentous actin (F-actin) and are found in organisms across the phylogenetic tree. Their structure and enzymatic ...

Density Gradient Ultracentrifugation for Investigating Endocytic Recycling in Mammalian Cells

Endosomal trafficking is an essential cellular process that regulates a broad range of biological events. Proteins are internalized from the plasma membrane and then transported to the early endosomes. The internalized proteins could be transited to the lysosome for degradation or recycled back to the plasma membrane. A robust endocytic recycling pathway is required to balance the removal of membrane materials from endocytosis. Various proteins are reported to regulate the pathway, including ADP-ribosylation factor 6 (ARF6). Density gradient ultracentrifugation is a classical method for cell fractionation. After the centrifugation, organelles are sedimented at their isopycnic surface. The fractions are collected and used for other downstream applications. Described here is a protocol to obtain a recycling endosome-containing fraction from transfected mammalian cells using density gradient ultracentrifugation. The isolated fractions were subjected to standard Western blotting for analyzing their protein contents. By employing this method, we identified that the plasma membrane targeting of engulfment and cell motility 1 (ELMO1), a Ras-related C3 botulinum toxin substrate 1 (Rac1) guanine nucleotide exchange factor, is through ARF6-mediated endocytic recycling.

This paper aims to present a protocol for preparing recycling endosomes from mammalian cells using sucrose density gradient ultracentrifugation.

Endosomal trafficking is an essential cellular process that regulates a broad range of biological events. Proteins are internalized from the plasma ...

Polysome Profiling without Gradient Makers or Fractionation Systems

Polysome fractionation by sucrose density gradient centrifugation is a powerful tool that can be used to create ribosome profiles, identify specific mRNAs being translated by ribosomes, and analyze polysome associated factors. While automated gradient makers and gradient fractionation systems are commonly used with this technique, these systems are generally expensive and can be cost-prohibitive for laboratories that have limited resources or cannot justify the expense due to their infrequent or occasional need to perform this method for their research. Here, a protocol is presented to reproducibly generate polysome profiles using standard equipment available in most molecular biology laboratories without specialized fractionation instruments. Moreover, a comparison of polysome profiles generated with and without a gradient fractionation system is provided. Strategies to optimize and produce reproducible polysome profiles are discussed. Saccharomyces cerevisiae is utilized as a model organism in this protocol. However, this protocol can be easily modified and adapted to generate ribosome profiles for many different organisms and cell types.

This protocol describes how to generate a polysome profile without using automated gradient makers or gradient fractionation systems.

Polysome fractionation by sucrose density gradient centrifugation is a powerful tool that can be used to create ribosome profiles, identify specific mRNAs ...

Motility of Single Molecules and Clusters of Bi-Directional Kinesin-5 Cin8 Purified from S. cerevisiae Cells

The mitotic bipolar kinesin-5 motors perform essential functions in spindle dynamics. These motors exhibit a homo-tetrameric structure with two pairs of catalytic motor domains, located at opposite ends of the active complex. This unique architecture enables kinesin-5 motors to crosslink and slide apart antiparallel spindle microtubules (MTs), thus providing the outwardly-directed force that separates the spindle poles apart. Previously, kinesin-5 motors were believed to be exclusively plus-end directed. However, recent studies revealed that several fungal kinesin-5 motors are minus-end directed at the single-molecule level and can switch directionality under various experimental conditions. The Saccharomyces cerevisiae kinesin-5 Cin8 is an example of such bi-directional motor protein: in high ionic strength conditions single molecules of Cin8 move in the minus-end direction of the MTs. It was also shown that Cin8 forms motile clusters, predominantly at the minus-end of the MTs, and such clustering allows Cin8 to switch directionality and undergo slow, plus-end directed motility. This article provides a detailed protocol for all steps of working with GFP-tagged kinesin-5 Cin8, from protein overexpression in S. cerevisiae cells and its purification to in vitro single-molecule motility assay. A newly developed method described here helps to differentiate between single molecules and clusters of Cin8, based on their fluorescence intensity. This method enables separate analysis of motility of single molecules and clusters of Cin8, thus providing the characterization of the dependence of Cin8 motility on its cluster size.

Motility of Single Molecules and Clusters of Bi-Directional Kinesin-5 Cin8 Purified from S. cerevisiae Cells

The bi-directional mitotic kinesin-5 Cin8 accumulates in clusters that split and merge during their motility. Accumulation in clusters also changes the velocity and directionality of Cin8. Here, a protocol for motility assays with purified Cin8-GFP and analysis of motile properties of single molecules and clusters of Cin8 is described.

The mitotic bipolar kinesin-5 motors perform essential functions in spindle dynamics. These motors exhibit a homo-tetrameric structure with two pairs of ...

Measurement of Protein Turnover Rates in Senescent and Non-Dividing Cultured Cells with Metabolic Labeling and Mass Spectrometry

Mounting evidence has shown that the accumulation of senescent cells in the central nervous system contributes to neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer&#39;s and Parkinson&#39;s diseases. Cellular senescence is a state of permanent cell cycle arrest that typically occurs in response to exposure to sub-lethal stresses. However, like other non-dividing cells, senescent cells remain metabolically active and carry out many functions that require unique transcriptional and translational demands and widespread changes in the intracellular and secreted proteomes. Understanding how protein synthesis and decay rates change during senescence can illuminate the underlying mechanisms of cellular senescence and find potential therapeutic avenues for diseases exacerbated by senescent cells. This paper describes a method for proteome-scale evaluation of protein half-lives in non-dividing cells using pulsed stable isotope labeling by amino acids in cell culture (pSILAC) in combination with mass spectrometry. pSILAC involves metabolic labeling of cells with stable heavy isotope-containing versions of amino acids. Coupled with modern mass spectrometry approaches, pSILAC enables the measurement of protein turnover of hundreds or thousands of proteins in complex mixtures. After metabolic labeling, the turnover dynamics of proteins can be determined based on the relative enrichment of heavy isotopes in peptides detected by mass spectrometry. In this protocol, a workflow is described for the generation of senescent fibroblast cultures and similarly arrested quiescent fibroblasts, as well as a simplified, single-time point pSILAC labeling time-course that maximizes coverage of anticipated protein turnover rates. Further, a pipeline is presented for the analysis of pSILAC mass spectrometry data and user-friendly calculation of protein degradation rates using spreadsheets. The application of this protocol can be extended beyond senescent cells to any non-dividing cultured cells such as neurons.

This protocol describes the workflow for metabolic labeling of senescent and non-dividing cells with pulsed SILAC, untargeted mass spectrometry analysis, and a streamlined calculation of protein half-lives.

Mounting evidence has shown that the accumulation of senescent cells in the central nervous system contributes to neurodegenerative disorders such as ...