Name: optimization for sequencing and analysis of degraded ffpe-rna samples
Uploaded: 2020-06-08T15:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Optimization for Sequencing and Analysis of Degraded FFPE-RNA Samples at JoVE.com

We are thankful to Dr. Danielle Carrick (Division of Cancer Control and Population Sciences, National Cancer Institute) for continued help, especially for initiating this study, providing us with the samples, and for helpful suggestions during data analysis. We sincerely thank all members of the CCR Sequencing Facility at the Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research for their help during sample preparation and sequencing, especially Brenda Ho for assistance in sample QC, Oksana German for library QC, Tatyana Smirnova for running the sequencers. We also would like to thank Tsai-wei Shen and Ashley Walton at Sequencing Facility Bioinformatics Group for helping with data analysis and RNA-seq pipeline implementation. We also thank CCBR and NCBR for assistance with RNaseq analysis pipeline and best practices development.

1. RNA quantity and quality assessment
<ol>
	<li>Select the FFPE samples according to predefined criteria and extract RNA using an appropriate method (e.g., FFPE-nuclei acid extraction kit, Table of Materials). 
	NOTE: There are several different methods available for FFPE-RNA extraction, including the newer microdissection methods that can work with very little tissue and extract good quality RNA12,13,14...

<ol>
	<li>Carrick, D. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Robustness+of+Next+Generation+Sequencing+on+Older+Formalin-Fixed+Paraffin-Embedded+Tissue.">Robustness of Next Generation Sequencing on Older Formalin-Fixed Paraffin-Embedded Tissue.</a> PLoS One. 10 (7), 0127353 (2015).</li><li>Hedegaard, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Next-generation+sequencing+of+RNA+and+DNA+isolated+from+paired+fresh-frozen+and+formalin-fixed+paraffin-embedded+samples+of+human+cancer+and+normal+tissue.">Next-generation sequencing of RNA and DNA isolated from paired fresh-frozen and formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded samples of human cancer and normal tissue.</a> PLoS One. 9 (5), 98187 (2014).</li><li>Zhang, P., Lehmann, B. D., Shyr, Y., Guo, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Utilization+of+Formalin+Fixed-Paraffin-Embedded+Specimens+in+High+Throughput+Genomic+Studies.">The Utilization of Formalin Fixed-Paraffin-Embedded Specimens in High Throughput Genomic Studies.</a> International Journal of Genomics. 2017, 1926304 (2017).</li><li>Srinivasan, M., Sedmak, D., Jewell, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+fixatives+and+tissue+processing+on+the+content+and+integrity+of+nucleic+acids.">Effect of fixatives and tissue processing on the content and integrity of nucleic acids.</a> American Journal of Pathology. 161 (6), 1961-1971 (2002).</li><li>von Ahlfen, S., Missel, A., Bendrat, K., Schlumpberger, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Determinants+of+RNA+quality+from+FFPE+samples.">Determinants of RNA quality from FFPE samples.</a> PLoS One. 2 (12), 1261 (2007).</li><li>Esteve-Codina, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+Comparison+of+RNA-Seq+Results+from+Paired+Formalin-Fixed+Paraffin-Embedded+and+Fresh-Frozen+Glioblastoma+Tissue+Samples.">A Comparison of RNA-Seq Results from Paired Formalin-Fixed Paraffin-Embedded and Fresh-Frozen Glioblastoma Tissue Samples.</a> PLoS One. 12 (1), 0170632 (2017).</li><li>Vukmirovic, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Identification+and+validation+of+differentially+expressed+transcripts+by+RNA-sequencing+of+formalin-fixed,+paraffin-embedded+(FFPE)+lung+tissue+from+patients+with+Idiopathic+Pulmonary+Fibrosis.">Identification and validation of differentially expressed transcripts by RNA-sequencing of formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded (FFPE) lung tissue from patients with Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis.</a> BMC Pulmonary Medicine. 17 (1), 15 (2017).</li><li>Adiconis, X., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Comparative+analysis+of+RNA+sequencing+methods+for+degraded+or+low-input+samples.">Comparative analysis of RNA sequencing methods for degraded or low-input samples.</a> Nature Methods. 10 (7), 623-629 (2013).</li><li>Sinicropi, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Whole+transcriptome+RNA-Seq+analysis+of+breast+cancer+recurrence+risk+using+formalin-fixed+paraffin-embedded+tumor+tissue.">Whole transcriptome RNA-Seq analysis of breast cancer recurrence risk using formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tumor tissue.</a> PLoS One. 7 (7), 40092 (2012).</li><li>Altekruse, S. F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=SEER+cancer+registry+biospecimen+research:+yesterday+and+tomorrow.">SEER cancer registry biospecimen research: yesterday and tomorrow.</a> Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers &amp; Prevention. 23 (12), 2681-2687 (2014).</li><li>Zhao, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Robustness+of+RNA+sequencing+on+older+formalin-fixed+paraffin-embedded+tissue+from+high-grade+ovarian+serous+adenocarcinomas.">Robustness of RNA sequencing on older formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissue from high-grade ovarian serous adenocarcinomas.</a> PLoS One. 14 (5), 0216050 (2019).</li><li>Amini, P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+optimised+protocol+for+isolation+of+RNA+from+small+sections+of+laser-capture+microdissected+FFPE+tissue+amenable+for+next-generation+sequencing.">An optimised protocol for isolation of RNA from small sections of laser-capture microdissected FFPE tissue amenable for next-generation sequencing.</a> BMC Molecular Biology. 18 (1), 22 (2017).</li><li>Amini, P., Nassiri, S., Ettlin, J., Malbon, A., Markkanen, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Next-generation+RNA+sequencing+of+FFPE+subsections+reveals+highly+conserved+stromal+reprogramming+between+canine+and+human+mammary+carcinoma.">Next-generation RNA sequencing of FFPE subsections reveals highly conserved stromal reprogramming between canine and human mammary carcinoma.</a> Disease Models and Mechanisms. 12 (8), (2019).</li><li>Wimmer, I., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Systematic+evaluation+of+RNA+quality,+microarray+data+reliability+and+pathway+analysis+in+fresh,+fresh+frozen+and+formalin-fixed+paraffin-embedded+tissue+samples.">Systematic evaluation of RNA quality, microarray data reliability and pathway analysis in fresh, fresh frozen and formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissue samples.</a> Scientific Reports. 8 (1), 6351 (2018).</li><li>. Babraham Bioinformatics Available from: <a target="_blank" href="https://www.bioinformatics.babraham.ac.uk/projects/fastqc/">https://www.bioinformatics.babraham.ac.uk/projects/fastqc/</a> (2019)</li><li>Martin, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cutadapt+removes+adapter+sequences+from+high-throughput+sequencing+reads.">Cutadapt removes adapter sequences from high-throughput sequencing reads.</a> EMBnet.journal. 17 (1), 10-12 (2011).</li><li>Bolger, A. M., Lohse, M., Usadel, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Trimmomatic:+a+flexible+trimmer+for+Illumina+sequence+data.">Trimmomatic: a flexible trimmer for Illumina sequence data.</a> Bioinformatics. 30 (15), 2114-2120 (2014).</li><li>. Babraham Bioinformatics Available from: <a target="_blank" href="https://www.bioinformatics.babraham.ac.uk/projects/fastq_screen/">https://www.bioinformatics.babraham.ac.uk/projects/fastq_screen/</a> (2019)</li><li>Wood, D. E., Salzberg, S. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Kraken:+ultrafast+metagenomic+sequence+classification+using+exact+alignments.">Kraken: ultrafast metagenomic sequence classification using exact alignments.</a> Genome Biology. 15 (3), 46 (2014).</li><li>Dobin, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=STAR:+ultrafast+universal+RNA-seq+aligner.">STAR: ultrafast universal RNA-seq aligner.</a> Bioinformatics. 29 (1), 15-21 (2013).</li><li>Wang, L., Wang, S., Li, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=RSeQC:+quality+control+of+RNA-seq+experiments.">RSeQC: quality control of RNA-seq experiments.</a> Bioinformatics. 28 (16), 2184-2185 (2012).</li><li>Ewels, P., Magnusson, M., Lundin, S., Kaller, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=MultiQC:+summarize+analysis+results+for+multiple+tools+and+samples+in+a+single+report.">MultiQC: summarize analysis results for multiple tools and samples in a single report.</a> Bioinformatics. 32 (19), 3047-3048 (2016).</li><li>Li, B., Dewey, C. N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=RSEM:+accurate+transcript+quantification+from+RNA-Seq+data+with+or+without+a+reference+genome.">RSEM: accurate transcript quantification from RNA-Seq data with or without a reference genome.</a> BMC Bioinformatics. 12, 323 (2011).</li><li>Son, K., Yu, S., Shin, W., Han, K., Kang, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+Simple+Guideline+to+Assess+the+Characteristics+of+RNA-Seq+Data.">A Simple Guideline to Assess the Characteristics of RNA-Seq Data.</a> BioMed Research International. 2018, 2906292 (2018).</li><li>McCarthy, D. J., Chen, Y., Smyth, G. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Differential+expression+analysis+of+multifactor+RNA-Seq+experiments+with+respect+to+biological+variation.">Differential expression analysis of multifactor RNA-Seq experiments with respect to biological variation.</a> Nucleic Acids Research. 40 (10), 4288-4297 (2012).</li><li>Robinson, M. D., McCarthy, D. J., Smyth, G. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=edgeR:+a+Bioconductor+package+for+differential+expression+analysis+of+digital+gene+expression+data.">edgeR: a Bioconductor package for differential expression analysis of digital gene expression data.</a> Bioinformatics. 26 (1), 139-140 (2010).</li><li>Ritchie, M. E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=limma+powers+differential+expression+analyses+for+RNA-sequencing+and+microarray+studies.">limma powers differential expression analyses for RNA-sequencing and microarray studies.</a> Nucleic Acids Research. 43 (7), 47 (2015).</li><li>Subramanian, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gene+set+enrichment+analysis:+a+knowledge-based+approach+for+interpreting+genome-wide+expression+profiles.">Gene set enrichment analysis: a knowledge-based approach for interpreting genome-wide expression profiles.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America U S A. 102 (43), 15545-15550 (2005).</li><li>Mootha, V. K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=PGC-1alpha-responsive+genes+involved+in+oxidative+phosphorylation+are+coordinately+downregulated+in+human+diabetes.">PGC-1alpha-responsive genes involved in oxidative phosphorylation are coordinately downregulated in human diabetes.</a> Nature Genetics. 34 (3), 267-273 (2003).</li><li>Ashburner, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gene+ontology:+tool+for+the+unification+of+biology.+The+Gene+Ontology+Consortium.">Gene ontology: tool for the unification of biology. The Gene Ontology Consortium.</a> Nature Genetics. 25 (1), 25-29 (2000).</li><li>Huang da, W., Sherman, B. T., Lempicki, R. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Systematic+and+integrative+analysis+of+large+gene+lists+using+DAVID+bioinformatics+resources.">Systematic and integrative analysis of large gene lists using DAVID bioinformatics resources.</a> Nature Protocols. 4 (1), 44-57 (2009).</li><li>Huang da, W., Sherman, B. T., Lempicki, R. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bioinformatics+enrichment+tools:+paths+toward+the+comprehensive+functional+analysis+of+large+gene+lists.">Bioinformatics enrichment tools: paths toward the comprehensive functional analysis of large gene lists.</a> Nucleic Acids Research. 37 (1), 1-13 (2009).</li><li>Evaluating RNA Quality from FFPE Samples. Illumina Available from: <a target="_blank" href="https://www.illumina.com/content/dam/illumina-marketing/documents/products/technotes/evaluating-rna-quality-from-ffpe-samples-technical-note-470-2014-001.pdf">https://www.illumina.com/content/dam/illumina-marketing/documents/products/technotes/evaluating-rna-quality-from-ffpe-samples-technical-note-470-2014-001.pdf</a> (2016)</li></ol>

The method described here outlines the main steps required to obtain good sequence data from FFPE-RNA samples. The main points to consider with this method are: (1) Ensure that the RNA is preserved as best as possible after extraction by minimizing the sample handling and freezing and thawing cycles. Separate QC aliquots are very helpful. (2) Use a QC metric that is best for the given sample set. RIN values and DV200 are often not useful for degraded samples, and DV100 may be the metric of choice to...

Use of next-generation sequencing approaches has enabled us to glean a wealth of information from various types of samples. However, old and poorly preserved samples remain unworkable for the commonly used methods of generating sequence data and often require modifications to well-established protocols. FFPE tissues represent such a sample type that has been widely utilized for clinical specimens1,2,3. While FFPE preservation maintains tissue morphology, the nucleic acids in FFPE tissues usually exhibit a wide range of damage and degradation, making it difficult to retrieve the genomic information that may lead to important insights about molecular mechanisms underlying various disorders.
Gene expression data generated by RNA sequencing is often instrumental in studying disease and resistance mechanisms and complements DNA mutation analysis. However, RNA is more susceptible to degradation, making it more challenging to generate accurate gene expression data from FFPE tissues. Furthermore, because the wide availability and affordability of sequencing is relatively recent, older specimens were often not stored in conditions required to preserve RNA integrity. Some of the issues for FFPE samples include degradation of RNA due to embedding in paraffin, chemical modification of RNA leading to fragmentation or refractoriness to enzymatic processes required for sequencing, and loss of the poly-A tails, limiting the applicability of oligo-dT as a primer for reverse transcriptase4. Another challenge is the handling/storage of FFPE samples under suboptimal conditions, which may lead to further degradation of labile molecules such as RNA in the tissues5. This is especially relevant for older samples that may have been collected at a time when gene expression analysis by RNA sequencing was not anticipated for the samples. All these lead to decreased quality and quantity of the extracted RNA available for generating useful sequence data. The low probability of success, combined with the high cost of sequencing, has dissuaded many researchers from trying to generate and analyze gene expression data from potentially useful FFPE samples. Some studies in recent years have demonstrated the usability of FFPE tissues for gene expression analysis2,6,7,8,9, albeit for fewer and/or more recent samples.
As a feasibility study, we used RNA extracted from FFPE tumor tissue specimens from three Residual Tissue Repositories from Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) cancer registries for RNA sequencing and gene expression analysis10. Procured from clinical pathology labs, the FFPE tissues from high-grade ovarian serous adenocarcinomas were stored from 7&#8211;32 years under varying conditions before RNA extraction. Because in most cases these blocks had been stored in different sites for years without the expectation of any sensitive genetic analysis in the future, not much care had been taken to preserve the nucleic acids. Thus, most of the samples exhibited poor quality RNA, with a large proportion of samples contaminated with bacteria. Nevertheless, we were able to perform gene quantification, measure the uniformity and continuity of gene coverage, and perform the Pearson correlation analysis among biological replicates to measure reproducibility. Based on a set of key signature gene panel, we compared the samples in our study with The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) data and confirmed that approximately 60% of the samples had comparable gene expression profiles11. Based on the correlation between various QC results and sample metadata, we identified key QC metrics that have good predictive value for identifying samples that are more likely to generate usable sequence data11.
Here we describe the methodology used for FFPE-RNA quality assessment, generation of sequencing libraries starting from extracted RNA samples, and bioinformatic analysis of the sequencing data.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>2100 Bioanalyzer</td>
			<td>Agilent</td>
			<td>G2939BA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Agilent DNA 7500 Kit</td>
			<td>Agilent</td>
			<td>5067-1506</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Agilent High Sensitivity DNA Kit</td>
			<td>Agilent</td>
			<td>5067-4626</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Agilent RNA 6000 Nano Kit</td>
			<td>Agilent</td>
			<td>5067-1511</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>AllPrep DNA/RNA FFPE Kit</td>
			<td>Qiagen</td>
			<td>80234</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CFX96 Touch System</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>1855195</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Library Quantification kit v2-Illumina</td>
			<td>KapaBiosystems</td>
			<td>KK4824</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NEBNext Ultra II Directional RNA Library Prep Kit for Illumina</td>
			<td>New England Biolabs</td>
			<td>E7765S</td>
			<td>https://www.neb.com/protocols/2017/02/07/protocol-for-use-with-ffpe-rna-nebnext-rrna-depletion-kit</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NEBNext rRNA Depletion Kit (Human/Mouse/Rat)</td>
			<td>New England Biolabs</td>
			<td>E6310L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NextSeq 500 Sequencing System</td>
			<td>Illumina</td>
			<td>SY-415-1001</td>
			<td>NextSeq 500 System guide: https://support.illumina.com/content/dam/illumina-support/documents/documentation/system_documentation/nextseq/nextseq-500-system-guide-15046563-06.pdf</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NextSeq PhiX Control Kit</td>
			<td>Illumina</td>
			<td>FC-110-3002</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NSQ 500/550 Hi Output KT v2.5 (150 CYS)</td>
			<td>Illumina</td>
			<td>20024907</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>10X Genomics Magnetic Separator</td>
			<td>10X Genomics</td>
			<td>120250</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rotator Multimixer</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>13916-822</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>C1000 Touch Thermal Cycler</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>1851197</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sequencing reagent kit</td>
			<td>Illumina</td>
			<td>20024907</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Flow cell package</td>
			<td>Illumina</td>
			<td>20024907</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Buffer cartridge and the reagent cartridge</td>
			<td>Illumina</td>
			<td>20024907</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium hydroxide solution (0.2N)</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>SX0607D-6</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TRIS-HCL Buffer 1.0M, pH 7.0</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>50-151-871</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

optimization for sequencing and analysis of degraded ffpe-rna samples

Gene expression analysis by RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) enables unique insights into clinical samples that can potentially lead to mechanistic understanding of the basis of various diseases as well as resistance and/or susceptibility mechanisms. However, FFPE tissues, which represent the most common method for preserving tissue morphology in clinical specimens, are not the best sources for gene expression profiling analysis. The RNA obtained from such samples is often degraded, fragmented, and chemically modified, which leads to suboptimal sequencing libraries. In turn, these generate poor quality sequence data that may not be reliable for gene expression analysis and mutation discovery. In order to make the most of FFPE samples and obtain the best possible data from low quality samples, it is important to take certain precautions while planning experimental design, preparing sequencing libraries, and during data analysis. This includes the use of appropriate metrics for precise sample quality control (QC), identifying the best methods for various steps during the sequencing library generation, and careful library QC. In addition, applying correct software tools and parameters for sequence data analysis is critical in order to identify artifacts in RNA-seq data, filter out contamination and low quality reads, assess uniformity of gene coverage, and measure the reproducibility of gene expression profiles among biological replicates. These steps can ensure high accuracy and reproducibility for profiling of very heterogeneous RNA samples. Here we describe the various steps for sample QC, library preparation and QC, sequencing, and data analysis that can help to increase the amount of useful data obtained from low quality RNA, such as that obtained from FFPE-RNA tissues.

The methodology described above was applied to 67 FFPE samples that had been stored under a variety of different conditions for 7&#8211;32 years (the median sample storage time was 17.5 years). The dataset and analysis results presented here were previously described and published in Zhao et al.11. On checking the sample quality as described earlier (i.e., example traces in Figure 2), DV100 was found to be more useful than DV200 because it is mor...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Optimization for Sequencing and Analysis of Degraded FFPE-RNA Samples at JoVE.com

Optimization for Sequencing and Analysis of Degraded FFPE-RNA Samples

This method describes the steps to improve the quality and quantity of sequence data that can be obtained from formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) RNA samples. We describe the methodology to more accurately assess the quality of FFPE-RNA samples, prepare sequencing libraries, and analyze the data from FFPE-RNA samples.

Gene expression analysis by RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) enables unique insights into clinical samples that can potentially lead to mechanistic understanding ...

Our protocol can be used to improve the quality and quantity of gene expression data generated from FFPE-derived RNA samples, especially in suboptimal quality samples. This technique assesses the RNA quality within FFPE tissue samples and enables optimization of their downstream processing to improve the quantity and quality of the sample sequencing data. This method allow the comprehensive characterization of a transcript in biological and clinical sample and may provide insight into functional elements of the genome in development and disease.The FFPE-RNA degradation and selection of the methods for sample QC, library preparation, and data analysis can all be very tricky. Be meticulous when selecting the right methods and appropriate controls. Visual demonstration allows viewers to observe the small subtle modifications and precautions needed during the planning, assessment, and the sequencing process especially for poorly preserved FFPE samples.To check the quality of the RNA sample, run the sample on an RNA QC system according to the manufacturer's instructions and use the appropriate bioanalysis software to analyze the distribution of the RNA fragments within the sample and to calculate the proportion of fragments longer than 100 and 200 nucleotides. Based on the QC metrics, identify the samples with fewer than 40%of the fragments longer than 100 nucleotides to allow exclusion of these samples from processing. For sequencing, thaw the appropriate sequencing reagent kits according to the run parameters in a room temperature water bath and place the reagent tray at four degrees Celsius after thawing.Place the flow cell package at room temperature for 30 minutes. While the package is warming, open the Illumina Experiment Manager application and select Create Sample Sheet. Select the sequencer to be used and click Next.Enter the reagent kit barcode and the other appropriate workflow parameters. Then upload a sample sheet created according to the Illumina sequence criteria. To prepare the sample library and the control library PhiX, denature and dilute the libraries to the appropriate concentrations and mix the sample and PhiX control libraries to obtain a 5%PhiX control volume ratio.When the flow cells are ready, remove the wrapping, clean the glass surface with a lint-free alcohol wipe, and dry the glass with a low lint laboratory tissue. Remove the reagent cartridge from four degrees Celsius storage and invert the cartridge five times to mix the reagents. Gently tap the cartridge on the bench to reduce air bubbles and load the denatured and diluted sample into the reagent cartridge in the designated reservoir.Load the flow cell, buffer cartridge, and the reagent cartridge onto the system. Then perform an automated check and review the output to ensure that the run parameters pass the system check. When the automated check is complete, select start to begin the sequencing run.To visualize the pre-processing QC and post-alignment QC results, run multi-QC to generate an aggregated report in HTML format. To determine batch effects and to assess the quality map of the given dataset, use an R script to run a principal component analysis. Sample correlation analysis can then be carried out using the Pearson correlation between different samples.The estimation of the proportion of fragments longer than 100 nucleotides is more useful than an estimation of the fragments longer than 200 nucleotides because it is more sensitive for accurately measuring the proportion of smaller fragment sizes for highly degraded RNA samples. Given the high degree of degradation in the sample set, a total RNA library preparation method is recommended. For example, here sequencing libraries prepared from four different samples are shown.Here, overviews of raw FastQ file sequencing quality and sample adapter content are shown. FastQC screening can help detect contamination such as bacterial or mouse contamination within the samples. STAR alignment can be used to determine the proportion of reads mapped to the reference genome, the percentage of reads uniquely mapped to the reference genome, and the proportion of reads that were not mapped, or that were mapped to multiple loci.The card and RSeQC statistics can be used to determine the percent of messenger RNAs, intronic and intergenic bases present in the mapped reads. For these representative analyses, some degraded libraries had a three prime bias in which more reads were mapped closer to the three prime than to the five prime end. In addition, principal component analysis can be performed to determine the percent of the total variation captured by the principal components for the biological replicates of each sample.Take care to avoid sample degradation, prepare replicates and multiple coats for each sample, use the appropriate metrics to assess the sample quality, and use the right library preparation method. Using this methodology, larger NGS studies can be performed with previously unusable FFPE samples with varying storage times and conditions to gain insights into a variety of different disease states. This technique paved the way for researchers to study existing large archives of FFPE sample with rich clinical information and can greatly enhance population-based cancer studies.

optimization-for-sequencing-and-analysis-of-degraded-ffpe-rna-samples

Research

JoVE Journal

Genetics

Flow-sorting and Exome Sequencing of the Reed-Sternberg Cells of Classical Hodgkin Lymphoma

The Hodgkin Reed-Sternberg cells of classical Hodgkin lymphoma are sparsely distributed within a background of inflammatory lymphocytes and typically comprise less than 1% of the tumor mass. Material derived from bulk tumor contains tumor content at a concentration insufficient for characterization. Therefore, fluorescence activated cell sorting using eight antibodies, as well as side- and forward-scatter, is described here as a method of rapidly separating and concentrating with high purity thousands of HRS cells from the tumor for subsequent study. At the same time, because standard protocols for exome sequencing typically require 100-1,000 ng of input DNA, which is often too high, even with flow sorting, we also provide an optimized, low-input library construction protocol capable of producing high-quality data from as little as 10 ng of input DNA. This combination is capable of producing next-generation libraries suitable for hybridization capture of whole-exome baits or more focused targeted panels, as desired. Exome sequencing of the HRS cells, when compared against healthy intratumor T or B cells, can identify somatic alterations, including mutations, insertions and deletions, and copy number alterations. These findings elucidate the molecular biology of HRS cells and may reveal avenues for targeted drug treatments.

Here, we describe a combined flow cytometric cell sorting and low-input, next-generation library construction protocol designed to produce high-quality, whole-exome data from the Hodgkin Reed-Sternberg (HRS) cells of classical Hodgkin lymphoma (CHL).

The Hodgkin Reed-Sternberg cells of classical Hodgkin lymphoma are sparsely distributed within a background of inflammatory lymphocytes and typically ...

Detection of Copy Number Alterations Using Single Cell Sequencing

Detection of genomic changes at single cell resolution is important for characterizing genetic heterogeneity and evolution in normal tissues, cancers, and microbial populations. Traditional methods for assessing genetic heterogeneity have been limited by low resolution, low sensitivity, and/or low specificity. Single cell sequencing has emerged as a powerful tool for detecting genetic heterogeneity with high resolution, high sensitivity and, when appropriately analyzed, high specificity. Here we provide a protocol for the isolation, whole genome amplification, sequencing, and analysis of single cells. Our approach allows for the reliable identification of megabase-scale copy number variants in single cells. However, aspects of this protocol can also be applied to investigate other types of genetic alterations in single cells.

Single cell sequencing is an increasingly popular and accessible tool for addressing genomic changes at high resolution. We provide a protocol that uses single cell sequencing to identify copy number alterations in single cells.

Detection of genomic changes at single cell resolution is important for characterizing genetic heterogeneity and evolution in normal tissues, cancers, and ...

Optimization and Comparative Analysis of Plant Organellar DNA Enrichment Methods Suitable for Next-generation Sequencing

Plant organellar genomes contain large, repetitive elements that may undergo pairing or recombination to form complex structures and/or sub-genomic fragments. Organellar genomes also exist in admixtures within a given cell or tissue type (heteroplasmy), and an abundance of subtypes may change throughout development or when under stress (sub-stoichiometric shifting). Next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies are required to obtain deeper understanding of organellar genome structure and function. Traditional sequencing studies use several methods to obtain organellar DNA: (1) If a large amount of starting tissue is used, it is homogenized and subjected to differential centrifugation and/or gradient purification. (2) If a smaller amount of tissue is used (i.e., if seeds, material, or space is limited), the same process is performed as in (1), followed by whole-genome amplification to obtain sufficient DNA. (3) Bioinformatics analysis can be used to sequence the total genomic DNA and to parse out organellar reads. All these methods have inherent challenges and tradeoffs. In (1), it may be difficult to obtain such a large amount of starting tissue; in (2), whole-genome amplification could introduce a sequencing bias; and in (3), homology between nuclear and organellar genomes could interfere with assembly and analysis. In plants with large nuclear genomes, it is advantageous to enrich for organellar DNA to reduce sequencing costs and sequence complexity for bioinformatics analyses. Here, we compare a traditional differential centrifugation method with a fourth method, an adapted CpG-methyl pulldown approach, to separate the total genomic DNA into nuclear and organellar fractions. Both methods yield sufficient DNA for NGS, DNA that is highly enriched for organellar sequences, albeit at different ratios in mitochondria and chloroplasts. We present the optimization of these methods for wheat leaf tissue and discuss major advantages and disadvantages of each approach in the context of sample input, protocol ease, and downstream application.

The comparison and optimization of two plant organellar DNA enrichment methods are presented: traditional differential centrifugation and fractionation of the total gDNA based on methylation status. We assess the resulting DNA quantity and quality, demonstrate performance in short-read next-generation sequencing, and discuss the potential for use in long-read single-molecule sequencing.

Plant organellar genomes contain large, repetitive elements that may undergo pairing or recombination to form complex structures and/or sub-genomic ...

Generation of Native Chromatin Immunoprecipitation Sequencing Libraries for Nucleosome Density Analysis

We present a modified native chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing (ChIP-seq) experimental protocol compatible with a Gaussian mixture distribution based analysis methodology (nucleosome density ChIP-seq; ndChIP-seq) that enables the generation of combined measurements of micrococcal nuclease (MNase) accessibility with histone modification genome-wide. Nucleosome position and local density, and the posttranslational modification of their histone subunits, act in concert to regulate local transcription states. Combinatorial measurements of nucleosome accessibility with histone modification generated by ndChIP-seq allows for the simultaneous interrogation of these features. The ndChIP-seq methodology is applicable to small numbers of primary cells inaccessible to cross-linking based ChIP-seq protocols. Taken together, ndChIP-seq enables the measurement of histone modification in combination with local nucleosome density to obtain new insights into shared mechanisms that regulate RNA transcription within rare primary cell populations.

We present a modified native chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing (ChIP-seq) methodology for the generation of sequence datasets suitable for a nucleosome density ChIP-seq analytical framework integrating micrococcal nuclease (MNase) accessibility with histone modification measurements.

We present a modified native chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing (ChIP-seq) experimental protocol compatible with a Gaussian mixture distribution ...

Chromatin Immunoprecipitation (ChIP) Protocol for Low-abundance Embryonic Samples

Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) is a widely-used technique for mapping the localization of post-translationally modified histones, histone variants, transcription factors, or chromatin-modifying enzymes at a given locus or on a genome-wide scale. The combination of ChIP assays with next-generation sequencing (i.e., ChIP-Seq) is a powerful approach to globally uncover gene regulatory networks and to improve the functional annotation of genomes, especially of non-coding regulatory sequences. ChIP protocols normally require large amounts of cellular material, thus precluding the applicability of this method to investigating rare cell types or small tissue biopsies. In order to make the ChIP assay compatible with the amount of biological material that can typically be obtained in vivo during early vertebrate embryogenesis, we describe here a simplified ChIP protocol in which the number of steps required to complete the assay were reduced to minimize sample loss. This ChIP protocol has been successfully used to investigate different histone modifications in various embryonic chicken and adult mouse tissues using low to medium cell numbers (5 x 104 - 5 x 105 cells). Importantly, this protocol is compatible with ChIP-seq technology using standard library preparation methods, thus providing global epigenomic maps in highly relevant embryonic tissues.

Chromatin Immunoprecipitation ChIP Protocol for Low-abundance Embryonic Samples

Here, we describe a chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) and ChIP-seq library preparation protocol to generate global epigenomic profiles from low-abundance chicken embryonic samples.

Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) is a widely-used technique for mapping the localization of post-translationally modified histones, histone variants, ...

Robust DNA Isolation and High-throughput Sequencing Library Construction for Herbarium Specimens

Herbaria are an invaluable source of plant material that can be used in a variety of biological studies. The use of herbarium specimens is associated with a number of challenges including sample preservation quality, degraded DNA, and destructive sampling of rare specimens. In order to more effectively use herbarium material in large sequencing projects, a dependable and scalable method of DNA isolation and library preparation is needed. This paper demonstrates a robust, beginning-to-end protocol for DNA isolation and high-throughput library construction from herbarium specimens that does not require modification for individual samples. This protocol is tailored for low quality dried plant material and takes advantage of existing methods by optimizing tissue grinding, modifying library size selection, and introducing an optional reamplification step for low yield libraries. Reamplification of low yield DNA libraries can rescue samples derived from irreplaceable and potentially valuable herbarium specimens, negating the need for additional destructive sampling and without introducing discernible sequencing bias for common phylogenetic applications. The protocol has been tested on hundreds of grass species, but is expected to be adaptable for use in other plant lineages after verification. This protocol can be limited by extremely degraded DNA, where fragments do not exist in the desired size range, and by secondary metabolites present in some plant material that inhibit clean DNA isolation. Overall, this protocol introduces a fast and comprehensive method that allows for DNA isolation and library preparation of 24 samples in less than 13 h, with only 8 h of active hands-on time with minimal modifications.

This article demonstrates a detailed protocol for DNA isolation and high-throughput sequencing library construction from herbarium material including rescue of exceptionally poor-quality DNA.

Herbaria are an invaluable source of plant material that can be used in a variety of biological studies. The use of herbarium specimens is associated with ...

Rare Event Detection Using Error-corrected DNA and RNA Sequencing

Conventional next-generation sequencing techniques (NGS) have allowed for immense genomic characterization for over a decade. Specifically, NGS has been used to analyze the spectrum of clonal mutations in malignancy. Though far more efficient than traditional Sanger methods, NGS struggles with identifying rare clonal and subclonal mutations due to its high error rate of ~0.5&#8211;2.0%. Thus, standard NGS has a limit of detection for mutations that are &#62;0.02 variant allele fraction (VAF). While the clinical significance for mutations this rare in patients without known disease remains unclear, patients treated for leukemia have significantly improved outcomes when residual disease is &#60;0.0001 by flow cytometry. In order to mitigate this artefactual background of NGS, numerous methods have been developed. Here we describe a method for Error-corrected DNA and RNA Sequencing (ECS), which involves tagging individual molecules with both a 16 bp random index for error-correction and an 8 bp patient-specific index for multiplexing. Our method can detect and track clonal mutations at variant allele fractions (VAFs) two orders of magnitude lower than the detection limit of NGS and as rare as 0.0001 VAF.

Next-generation sequencing (NGS) is a powerful tool for genomic characterization that is limited by the high error rate of the platform (~0.5&#8211;2.0%). We describe our methods of error-corrected sequencing that allow us to obviate the NGS error rate and detect mutations at variant allele fractions as rare as 0.0001.

Conventional next-generation sequencing techniques (NGS) have allowed for immense genomic characterization for over a decade. Specifically, NGS has been ...

Amplification of Near Full-length HIV-1 Proviruses for Next-Generation Sequencing

The Full-Length Individual Proviral Sequencing (FLIPS) assay is an efficient and high-throughput method designed to amplify and sequence single, near full-length (intact and defective), HIV-1 proviruses. FLIPS allows determination of the genetic composition of integrated HIV-1 within a cell population. Through identifying defects within HIV-1 proviral sequences that arise during reverse transcription, such as large internal deletions, deleterious stop codons/hypermutation, frameshift mutations, and mutations/deletions in cis acting elements required for virion maturation, FLIPS can identify integrated proviruses incapable of replication. The FLIPS assay can be utilized to identify HIV-1 proviruses that lack these defects and are&#160;therefore potentially replication-competent. The FLIPS protocol involves: lysis of HIV-1 infected cells, nested PCR of near full-length HIV-1 proviruses (using primers targeted to the HIV-1 5&#39; and 3&#39; LTR), DNA purification and quantification, library preparation for Next-generation Sequencing (NGS), NGS, de novo assembly of proviral contigs, and a simple process of elimination for identifying replication-competent proviruses. FLIPS provides advantages over traditional methods designed to sequence integrated HIV-1 proviruses, such as single-proviral sequencing. FLIPS amplifies and sequences near full-length proviruses enabling replication competency to be determined, and also uses fewer amplification primers, preventing the consequences of primer mismatches. FLIPS is a useful tool for understanding the genetic landscape of integrated HIV-1 proviruses, especially within the latent reservoir, however, its utilization can extend to any application in which the genetic composition of integrated HIV-1 is required.

Full-length individual proviral sequencing (FLIPS) provides an efficient and high-throughput method for the amplification and sequencing of single, near full-length (intact and defective) HIV-1 proviruses and allows for determination of their potential replication-competency. FLIPS overcomes limitations of previous assays designed to sequence the latent HIV-1 reservoir.

The Full-Length Individual Proviral Sequencing (FLIPS) assay is an efficient and high-throughput method designed to amplify and sequence single, near ...

Semiconductor Sequencing for Preimplantation Genetic Testing for Aneuploidy

Chromosomal aneuploidy, one of the main causes leading to embryonic development arrest, implantation failure, or pregnancy loss, has been well documented in human embryos. Preimplantation genetic testing for aneuploidy (PGT-A) is a genetic test that significantly improves reproductive outcomes by detecting chromosomal abnormalities of embryos. Next-generation sequencing (NGS) provides a high-throughput and cost-effective approach for genetic analysis and has shown clinical applicability in PGT-A. Here, we present a rapid and low-cost semiconductor sequencing-based NGS method for screening of aneuploidy in embryos. The first step of the workflow is whole genome amplification (WGA) of the biopsied embryo specimen, followed by construction of sequencing library, and subsequent sequencing on the semiconductor sequencing system. Generally, for a PGT-A application, 24 samples can be loaded and sequenced on each chip generating 60&#8722;80 million reads at an average read length of 150 base pairs. The method provides a refined protocol for performing template amplification and enrichment of sequencing library, making the PGT-A detection reproducible, high-throughput, cost-efficient, and timesaving. The running time of this semiconductor sequencer is only 2&#8722;4 hours, shortening the turnaround time from receiving samples to issuing reports into 5 days. All these advantages make this assay an ideal method to detect chromosomal aneuploidies from embryos and thus, facilitate its wide application in PGT-A.

Here, we introduce a semiconductor sequencing method for preimplantation genetic testing for aneuploidy (PGT-A) with the advantages of short turnaround time, low cost, and high throughput.

Chromosomal aneuploidy, one of the main causes leading to embryonic development arrest, implantation failure, or pregnancy loss, has been well documented ...

Sequencing of mRNA from Whole Blood using Nanopore Sequencing

Sequencing in remote locations and resource-poor settings presents unique challenges. Nanopore sequencing can be successfully used under such conditions, and was deployed to West Africa during the recent Ebola virus epidemic, highlighting this possibility. In addition to its practical advantages (low cost, ease of equipment transport and use), this technology also provides fundamental advantages over second-generation sequencing approaches, particularly the very long read length, ability to directly sequence RNA, and real-time availability of data. Raw read accuracy is lower than with other sequencing platforms, which represents the main limitation of this technology; however, this can be partially mitigated by the high read depth generated. Here, we present a field-compatible protocol for sequencing of the mRNAs encoding for Niemann-Pick C1, which is the cellular receptor for ebolaviruses. This protocol encompasses extraction of RNA from animal blood samples, followed by RT-PCR for target enrichment, barcoding, library preparation, and the sequencing run itself, and can be easily adapted for use with other DNA or RNA targets.

Nanopore sequencing is a novel technology that allows cost-effective sequencing in remote locations and resource-poor settings. Here, we present a protocol for sequencing of mRNAs from whole blood that is compatible with such conditions.

Sequencing in remote locations and resource-poor settings presents unique challenges. Nanopore sequencing can be successfully used under such conditions, ...