Nous remercions le Dr Till Böcking pour le protocole original de préparation d’une molécule unique. 
Ce travail a été soutenu par la subvention NSF 1121972 (SS).

<ol>
	<li>Pang, H. -. B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Virion+stiffness+regulates+immature+HIV-1+entry.">Virion stiffness regulates immature HIV-1 entry.</a> Retrovirology. 10, 4 (2013).</li><li>Kol, N., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+Stiffness+Switch+in+Human+Immunodeficiency+Virus.">A Stiffness Switch in Human Immunodeficiency Virus.</a> Biophys. J. 92, 1777-1783 (2007).</li><li>Ortega-Esteban, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Minimizing+tip&#8211;sample+forces+in+jumping+mode+atomic+force+microscopy+in+liquid.">Minimizing tip&#8211;sample forces in jumping mode atomic force microscopy in liquid.</a> Ultramicroscopy. 114, 56-61 (2012).</li><li>Ortega-Esteban, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Monitoring+dynamics+of+human+adenovirus+disassembly+induced+by+mechanical+fatigue.">Monitoring dynamics of human adenovirus disassembly induced by mechanical fatigue.</a> Sci. Rep. 3, (2013).</li><li>Hernando-P&#233;rez, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Physical+Virology:+Direct+Measurement+of+Phage.">Physical Virology: Direct Measurement of Phage.</a> phi29 Stiffness Provides Evidence of Internal Pressure (Small 15/2012). Small. 8, 2365-2365 (2012).</li><li>Carrasco, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=DNA-mediated+anisotropic+mechanical+reinforcement+of+a+virus.">DNA-mediated anisotropic mechanical reinforcement of a virus.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 103, 13706-13711 (2006).</li><li>Sofia, S. J., Premnath, V. V., Merrill, E. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Poly(ethylene+oxide)+Grafted+to+Silicon+Surfaces:+Grafting+Density+and+Protein+Adsorption.">Poly(ethylene oxide) Grafted to Silicon Surfaces: Grafting Density and Protein Adsorption.</a> Macromolecules. 31, 5059-5070 (1998).</li><li>Visnapuu, M. -. L., Duzdevich, D., Greene, E. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+importance+of+surfaces+in+single-molecule+bioscience.">The importance of surfaces in single-molecule bioscience.</a> Mol. Biosyst. 4, 394-403 (2008).</li><li>Elenko, M. P., Szostak, J. W., Van Oijen, A. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Single-molecule+binding+experiments+on+long+time+scales.">Single-molecule binding experiments on long time scales.</a> Rev. Sci. Instrum. 81, (2010).</li><li>van Oijen, A. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Single-Molecule+Kinetics+of+&#955;+Exonuclease+Reveal+Base+Dependence+and+Dynamic+Disorder.">Single-Molecule Kinetics of &#955; Exonuclease Reveal Base Dependence and Dynamic Disorder.</a> Science. 301, 1235-1238 (2003).</li><li>B&#246;cking, T., Aguet, F., Harrison, S. C., Kirchhausen, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Single-molecule+analysis+of+a+molecular+disassemblase+reveals+the+mechanism+of+Hsc70-driven+clathrin+uncoating.">Single-molecule analysis of a molecular disassemblase reveals the mechanism of Hsc70-driven clathrin uncoating.</a> Nat. Struct. Mol. Biol. 18, 295-301 (2011).</li><li>Cocucci, E., Aguet, F., Boulant, S., Kirchhausen, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+First+Five+Seconds+in+the+Life+of+a+Clathrin-Coated+Pit.">The First Five Seconds in the Life of a Clathrin-Coated Pit.</a> Cell. 150, 495-507 (2012).</li><li>Rust, M. J., Bates, M., Zhuang, X. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sub-diffraction-limit+imaging+by+stochastic+optical+reconstruction+microscopy.">Sub-diffraction-limit imaging by stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy.</a> 3, 793-795 (2006).</li><li>Betzig, E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Imaging+intracellular+fluorescent+proteins+at+nanometer+resolution.">Imaging intracellular fluorescent proteins at nanometer resolution.</a> Science. 313, 1642-1645 (2006).</li><li>Hess, S. T., Girirajan, T. P. K., Mason, M. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ultra-High+Resolution+Imaging+by+Fluorescence+Photoactivation+Localization+Microscopy.">Ultra-High Resolution Imaging by Fluorescence Photoactivation Localization Microscopy.</a> Biophys. J. 91, 4258-4272 (2006).</li><li>Juette, M. F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Three-dimensional+sub-100+nm+resolution+fluorescence+microscopy+of+thick+samples.">Three-dimensional sub-100 nm resolution fluorescence microscopy of thick samples.</a> Nat. 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Les auteurs n’ont pas d’intérêts financiers concurrents dans le présent document.

L’imagerie à virion unique avec AFM et imagerie par fluorescence à haute résolution peut être utilisée comme méthodologie alternative à la tomographie CryoEM. Chacune de ces méthodologies a ses points forts spécifiques. Par exemple, l’AFM peut être effectuée sur des virions WT sans aucune exigence sur le marquage de l’échantillon ou des protéines virales internes. L’emplacement des structures virales est déconvolvé de leurs contributions aux propriétés élastiques du virion.
L’imagerie à super-résolution à virion unique en combinaison avec les approches génétiques inverses virales nouvellement développées devient une technique puissante pour localiser les protéines virales à faible nombre de copies20. Les virus recombinants avec le remplacement de leurs protéines par des protéines fusionnées à des protéines fluorescentes peuvent être fabriqués et purifiés en utilisant ces approches génétiques inverses. Bien que l’imagerie à super-résolution ait une spécificité en partie due au marquage génétique, elle nécessite l’utilisation des virus mutants.
L’AFM et l’imagerie à super-résolution sont des méthodes complémentaires qui utilisent des préparations d’échantillons très similaires. Les méthodes décrites dans cet article, qui sont adoptées sous forme de tests d’imagerie à molécule unique antérieurs, permettent l’ancrage de virions uniques avec peu d’effets sur la topologie des virions.

Les interactions non spécifiques basées sur la charge sont couramment utilisées pour l’adhésion des virions en microscopie à force atomique1,2. Ces techniques fonctionnent particulièrement bien lorsqu’elles sont utilisées sur des virions non enveloppés avec des capsides très raides3-6. Bien que ces techniques soient très efficaces pour immobiliser l’échantillon, elles n’empêchent pas la liaison non spécifique des protéines à la surface. La liaison non spécifique peut créer un problème lors de la tentative d’image des virions avec des techniques de fluorescence AFM et super-résolution qui nécessitent des incubations de l’échantillon avec divers anticorps. Nous décrivons ici une méthode de préparation d’échantillons pour l’immobilisation spécifique des virions.
Le poly(éthylène glycol) (PEG) greffé à la poly(L-lysine) (PLL) et adsorbé sur une surface vitrée fournit un bloc important pour les interactions électrostatiques des protéines avec le verre7. Les dosages à molécule unique qui nécessitent l’immobilisation de molécules uniques sur des surfaces vitrées ont tiré parti de cette propriété et l’ont utilisée pour créer une technique d’immobilisation de molécule unique spécifique à base de PEG8-10. Cette préparation a également été utilisée pour immobiliser des cages de clathrine sur la surface vitrée11 ainsi que pour créer un revêtement homogène de fibronectine pour contrôler l’adhérence cellulaire 12.
Nous avons adopté la méthode de préparation des échantillons basée sur l’adsorption PLL-g-PEG sur les surfaces vitrées à partir de méthodologies d’imagerie à molécule unique et l’avons appliquée à l’imagerie des virions uniques du virus de la stomatite vésiculeuse (VSV). Ces virions simples ont été microscopés utilisant la microscopie de force atomique (AFM). Des expériences similaires ont également été réalisées sur des billes fonctionnalisées comme témoin. Les virions ont également été microscopiés par fluorescence à super-résolution où un anticorps VSV-G marqué avec Alexa 647 a été utilisé pour créer une image de l’enveloppe de virions simples. L’imagerie fluorescente haute résolution utilise la localisation de molécules uniques pour créer une image13-15. L’imagerie bi-plane fPALM permet la localisation de molécules uniques avec une résolution de 20 nm dans le plan et de 50 nm le long de l’axe optique15,16. Cette technique bi-plane a été utilisée pour imager des images fluorescentes à super-résolution présentes dans cette étude. Une technique alternative qui a des résultats similaires est STORM13,17,18.
L’AFM et les images fluorescentes à super-résolution de VSV ancrées au verre par les procédures décrites dans ce document, ont montré une liaison spécifique des virions au verre avec un minimum d’interactions non spécifiques19. Nous présentons ici les protocoles de préparation des échantillons pour l’AFM et les expériences d’imagerie fluorescente à super-résolution. En bref: Les lamphes de verre propres sont fonctionnalisées en adsorbant un mélange de PLL-g-PEG et de PLL-g-PEG-biotine. Il est typique que ce film mince soit conçu pour fournir entre 15 et 25% de biotine fonctionnalisée sur une surface enduite. Les lamelle sont en outre incubées avec de l’avidine tétramérique. Un anticorps viral biotinylé est ensuite utilisé pour créer un site de liaison unique pour les virions. La liaison de l’anticorps peut se faire de deux manières.
La première méthode est optimisée pour l’AFM, mais elle reste adaptée à l’imagerie par fluorescence à super-résolution. Dans cette méthode, la surface enduite d’avidine est traitée avec de l’anticorps biotinylé avant l’adhésion virale. Les virions immobilisés sont traités avec un anticorps marqué Alexa 647 pour couvrir l’enveloppe et permettre l’imagerie par fluorescence super-résolution des virions.
La deuxième méthode consiste à attaquer le virus en solution avec l’anticorps biotinylé et l’anticorps marqué Alexa 647 avant d’adhérer les virus à la surface traitée à l’avidine; cette méthode est optimisée pour les expériences d’imagerie par fluorescence à super-résolution dans lesquelles la récupération de l’enveloppe virale est importante. Cette méthode a l’avantage de permettre un revêtement d’anticorps uniforme sur la surface virale. L’anticorps biotinylé peut être mélangé avec des anticorps viraux marqués par Alexa 647 dans des rapports qui permettent une adsorption suffisante du virus sur la surface traitée à l’avidine tout en maintenant une concentration élevée d’étiquette fluorescente à l’extérieur de l’enveloppe virale. Ces anticorps viraux marqués alexa 647 ne sont pas biotinylés et leur excès peut être rincé afin de réduire le bruit de fond.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="573">
	<colgroup>
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
		<col />
	</colgroup>
	<tbody>
		<tr height="84">
			<td height="84" style="height:84px;width:216px;">Glass coverslips (fPALM)</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Electron Microscopy Services</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">72225-01</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">25 mm Coverslips</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">PLL(20)-g[3.5]-PEG(2)/PEG(3.4)-Biotin (20%)&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">SuSoS&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">-</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Stock: 0.5 mg/ml in PBS</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">NeutrAvidin biotin-binding protein</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Invitrogen</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">A2666</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Stock: 0.25 mg/ml in PBS</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="60">
			<td height="60" style="height:60px;width:216px;">Alexa Fluor 647 goat anti-rabbit IgG (H+L)&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Invitrogen</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">A21245</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">1:200 in 0.2 M KPO4, 0.15 M NaCl, 10% Glycol, pH 7.2 buffer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="84">
			<td height="84" style="height:84px;width:216px;">&#945;-VSV-G&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Invitrogen</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">ab34774</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">1:200 in 0.2 M KPO4, 0.15 M NaCl, 10% Glycol, pH 7.2 buffer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Gluox</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Sigma</td>
			<td>G2133-250KU&#160;</td>
			<td>Glucose oxidase type seven from Aspergillius&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Catalase</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">C40-100mg&#160;</td>
			<td>Catalase from Bovine liver&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">MEA</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Sigma</td>
			<td>30070-10G&#160;</td>
			<td>Cysteamine (MEA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Stock Buffer</td>
			<td style="width:71px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>50 mM Tris-HCl (pH 8.0) + 10 mM NaCl + 10% glucose</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">NTE</td>
			<td style="width:71px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>10 mM Tris pH 7.4, 100 mM NaCl, 66 mM EDTA</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;">Slide-A-Lyzer, mini dialysis unit</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>10,000 MW</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;">Microscope Cover Glass: 35 CIRCLE #1</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Fisherbrand</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">35 CIRCLE #1</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

sample preparation for single virion atomic force microscopy and super-resolution fluorescence imaging

L’immobilisation des virions sur les surfaces vitrées est une étape critique dans l’imagerie à virion unique. Nous présentons ici une technique adoptée à partir d’essais d’imagerie à molécule unique qui permet l’adhésion de virions simples à des surfaces vitrées avec spécificité. Cette préparation est basée sur la greffe de la surface du verre avec un mélange de PLL-g-PEG et PLL-g-PEG-Biotine, l’ajout d’une couche d’avidine, et enfin la création d’ancres de virion par fixation d’anticorps spécifiques du virus biotinylé. Nous avons appliqué cette technique à travers une gamme d’expériences, y compris la microscopie à force atomique (AFM) et l’imagerie par fluorescence à super-résolution. Cette méthode de préparation de l’échantillon se traduit par une adhérence de contrôle des virions à la surface.

Imagerie à virion unique à l’aide de l’AFM :
Le protocole de préparation des échantillons décrit ci-dessus a été utilisé pour ancrer des virions de type sauvage à la surface du verre. Les virions VSV sont en forme de balle de 180 nm de longueur et de 80 nm de diamètre. Comme il existe une variété de virions pour lesquels cette technique peut être appliquée, le concept est également démontré ici sur des perles biotinylées de 36 nm. Les expériences AFM qui en résultent sont illustrées à la figure 1. Il est important de noter que les virions vsv ont un module de Young inférieur (100 MPa) comparé aux virus non enveloppés (GPa). Les images particulières de VSV à virion unique ont été obtenues en mode tapotement dans des conditions ambiantes avec un porte-à-faux rigide. L’objectif a été de déformer le virus au point que la densité protéique supplémentaire dans le virus devienne visible sous forme de bosse dans l’image AFM. Cette méthode est utilisée pour détecter la densité protéique supplémentaire dans la cavité virale19.
Imagerie à super résolution virion unique :
Les anticorps VSV-G marqués Alexa 647 ont été utilisés pour recouvrir l’enveloppe de virions VSV individuels pour des expériences de super-résolution utilisant la méthode 5A. Pour démontrer la densité d’attache et la faible liaison non spécifique, un grand balayage de l’échantillon est représenté à la figure 2A. La récupération de l’enveloppe virale sur un virion représentatif est représentée à la figure 2B (isosurface bleue).
<img alt="Figure 1" fo:content-width="5in" fo:src="/files/ftp_upload/51366/51366fig1highres.jpg" src="/files/ftp_upload/51366/51366fig1.jpg" style="opacity: 0.9; font-size: 14.399999618530273px; line-height: 28px;">
Figure 1. Imagerie AFM des billes et du VSV sur la surface pegg fonctionnalisée. AFM scan de billes biotinylées de 36 nm(A, B)et d’un virion VSV(C)ancré à la surface avec un anticorps VSVG biotinylé. L’AFM a été effectué en mode de balayage de la topographie de l’air c.a. Le rayon de pointe est de <25 nm et les mesures ont été effectuées sous modulation de force et taraudage de la lumière. La pointe avait une constante de force de 3 N/m et une fréquence de résonance de 75 kHz avec une incertitude de 15 kHz. Alors que les perles ont conservé leur hauteur pendant le balayage de l’AFM, le virion VSV a un module de young significativement plus petit et est significativement déformé en hauteur. Dans cette image, le virion a été spécifiquement cérumisé avec un porte-à-faux rigide en mode tapotement qui a produit une petite convolution xy (utilisée pour déterminer la pointe vs l’extrémité émoussée du virus) et la différence de hauteur entre la pointe et l’extrémité émoussée du virus est utilisée pour détecter la densité protéique supplémentaire à l’extrémité émoussée du virus19.
<img alt="Figure 2" fo:content-width="5in" fo:src="/files/ftp_upload/51366/51366fig2highres.jpg" src="/files/ftp_upload/51366/51366fig2.jpg"> Figure 2. Imagerie basée sur la fluorescence des virions VSV sur la surface fonctionnalisée PEGG. A)virions VSV recombinants immobilisés sur la surface PEGG à l’aide d’un anticorps anti VSVG biotinylé ionisé en fluorescence à champ large. B)Reconstruction par fluorescence haute résolution de l’enveloppe de VSV fixée à la surface pegg par un anticorps anti-VSVG biotinylé et décoré d’anticorps anti-VSVG marqués Alexa 647 (la méthode 5A a été utilisée pour créer ces images). La surface bleue est une projection isosurface 2D. À gauche montre un modèle du virus en forme de balle. 
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="212"><colgroup>
<col>
<col>
</colgroup>
<tbody>
<tr height="27">
<td height="27" style="height:27px;width:119px;">Taille de la lamelle de couverture</td>
			<td style="width:93px;">fluide</td>
		</tr>
<tr height="20">
<td height="20" style="height:20px;">40 mm</td>
			<td>65 μl</td>
		</tr>
<tr height="20">
<td height="20" style="height:20px;">35 mm</td>
			<td>50 μl</td>
		</tr>
<tr height="20">
<td height="20" style="height:20px;">30 mm</td>
			<td>36 μl</td>
		</tr>
<tr height="20">
<td height="20" style="height:20px;">25 mm</td>
			<td>25 μl</td>
		</tr>
<tr height="20">
<td height="20" style="height:20px;">20 mm</td>
			<td>16 μl</td>
		</tr>
</tbody></table>Tableau 1. Aliquotes fluides selon la taille de la lamelle de couverture.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Sample Preparation for Single Virion Atomic Force Microscopy and Super-resolution Fluorescence Imaging at JoVE.com

Sample Preparation for Single Virion Atomic Force Microscopy and Super-resolution Fluorescence Imaging

La fixation de virions à une surface est une exigence pour l’imagerie à virion unique par imagerie par fluorescence à super-résolution ou microscopie à force atomique (AFM). Nous démontrons ici une méthode de préparation d’échantillons pour une adhérence contrôlée des virions aux surfaces vitrées adaptées à une utilisation dans l’AFM et l’imagerie par fluorescence à super-résolution.

Préparation d’échantillons pour la microscopie à force atomique à virion unique et l’imagerie par fluorescence à super-résolution

Immobilization of virions to glass surfaces is a critical step in single virion imaging. Here we present a technique&#160;adopted from single molecule ...

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9.4K vues.  University of Utah. La fixation de virions à une surface est une exigence pour l’imagerie à virion unique par imagerie par fluorescence à super-résolution ou microscopie à force atomique (AFM). Nous démontrons ici une méthode de préparation d’échantillons pour une adhérence contrôlée des virions aux surfaces vitrées adaptées à une utilisation dans l’AFM et l’imagerie par fluorescence à super-résolution.

Vidéo: Sample Preparation for Single Virion Atomic Force Microscopy and Super-resolution Fluorescence Imaging

Time-lapse Imaging of Mitosis After siRNA Transfection

Changes in cellular organization and chromosome dynamics that occur during mitosis are tightly coordinated to ensure accurate inheritance of genomic and cellular content. Hallmark events of mitosis, such as chromosome movement, can be readily tracked on an individual cell basis using time-lapse fluorescence microscopy of mammalian cell lines expressing specific GFP-tagged proteins. In combination with RNAi-based depletion, this can be a powerful method for pinpointing the stage(s) of mitosis where defects occur after levels of a particular protein have been lowered. In this protocol, we present a basic method for assessing the effect of depleting a potential mitotic regulatory protein on the timing of mitosis. Cells are transfected with siRNA, placed in a stage-top incubation chamber, and imaged using an automated fluorescence microscope. We describe how to use software to set up a time-lapse experiment, how to process the image sequences to make either still-image montages or movies, and how to quantify and analyze the timing of mitotic stages using a cell-line expressing mCherry-tagged histone H2B. Finally, we discuss important considerations for designing a time-lapse experiment. This strategy is complementary to other approaches and offers the advantages of 1) sensitivity to changes in kinetics that might not be observed when looking at cells as a population and 2) analysis of mitosis without the need to synchronize the cell cycle using drug treatments. The visual information from such imaging experiments not only allows the sub-stages of mitosis to be assessed, but can also provide unexpected insight that would not be apparent from cell cycle analysis by FACS.

Here we describe a basic protocol to image and quantify the mitotic timing of live mammalian tissue culture cells after siRNA transfection.

Imagerie time-lapse de la mitose après transfection de siRNA

Changes in cellular organization and chromosome dynamics that occur during mitosis are tightly coordinated to ensure accurate inheritance of genomic and ...

Recherche

Biologie

Super-resolution Imaging of the Bacterial Division Machinery

Bacterial cell division requires the coordinated assembly of more than ten essential proteins at midcell1,2. Central to this process is the formation of a ring-like suprastructure (Z-ring) by the FtsZ protein at the division plan3,4. The Z-ring consists of multiple single-stranded FtsZ protofilaments, and understanding the arrangement of the protofilaments inside the Z-ring will provide insight into the mechanism of Z-ring assembly and its function as a force generator5,6. This information has remained elusive due to current limitations in conventional fluorescence microscopy and electron microscopy. Conventional fluorescence microscopy is unable to provide a high-resolution image of the Z-ring due to the diffraction limit of light (~200 nm). Electron cryotomographic imaging has detected scattered FtsZ protofilaments in small C. crescentus cells7, but is difficult to apply to larger cells such as E. coli or B. subtilis. Here we describe the application of a super-resolution fluorescence microscopy method, Photoactivated Localization Microscopy (PALM), to quantitatively characterize the structural organization of the E. coli Z-ring8.
	PALM imaging offers both high spatial resolution (~35 nm) and specific labeling to enable unambiguous identification of target proteins. We labeled FtsZ with the photoactivatable fluorescent protein mEos2, which switches from green fluorescence (excitation = 488 nm) to red fluorescence (excitation = 561 nm) upon activation at 405 nm9. During a PALM experiment, single FtsZ-mEos2 molecules are stochastically activated and the corresponding centroid positions of the single molecules are determined with &lt;20 nm precision. A super-resolution image of the Z-ring is then reconstructed by superimposing the centroid positions of all detected FtsZ-mEos2 molecules.
	Using this method, we found that the Z-ring has a fixed width of ~100 nm and is composed of a loose bundle of FtsZ protofilaments that overlap with each other in three dimensions. These data provide a springboard for further investigations of the cell cycle dependent changes of the Z-ring10 and can be applied to other proteins of interest.

We describe a super-resolution imaging method to probe the structural organization of the bacterial FtsZ-ring, an essential apparatus for cell division. This method is based on quantitative analyses of photoactivated localization microscopy (PALM) images and can be applied to other bacterial cytoskeletal proteins.

Super-resolution Imaging Division de la machinerie bactérienne

Bacterial cell division requires the coordinated  assembly of more than ten essential proteins at midcell1,2. Central  to this process is the formation of ...

Test Samples for Optimizing STORM Super-Resolution Microscopy

STORM is a recently developed super-resolution microscopy technique with up to 10 times better resolution than standard fluorescence microscopy techniques. However, as the image is acquired in a very different way than normal, by building up an image molecule-by-molecule, there are some significant challenges for users in trying to optimize their image acquisition. In order to aid this process and gain more insight into how STORM works we present the preparation of 3 test samples and the methodology of acquiring and processing STORM super-resolution images with typical resolutions of between 30-50 nm. By combining the test samples with the use of the freely available rainSTORM processing software it is possible to obtain a great deal of information about image quality and resolution. Using these metrics it is then possible to optimize the imaging procedure from the optics, to sample preparation, dye choice, buffer conditions, and image acquisition settings. We also show examples of some common problems that result in poor image quality, such as lateral drift, where the sample moves during image acquisition and density related problems resulting in the 'mislocalization' phenomenon.

We describe the preparation of three test samples and how they can be used to optimize and assess the performance of STORM microscopes. Using these examples we show how to acquire raw data and then process it to acquire super-resolution images in cells of approximately 30-50 nm resolution.

Les échantillons de test pour optimiser STORM Super-Résolution Microscopie

STORM is a recently developed super-resolution microscopy technique with up to 10 times better resolution than standard fluorescence microscopy ...

Rapid Analysis and Exploration of Fluorescence Microscopy Images

Despite rapid advances in high-throughput microscopy, quantitative image-based assays still pose significant challenges. While a variety of specialized image analysis tools are available, most traditional image-analysis-based workflows have steep learning curves (for fine tuning of analysis parameters) and result in long turnaround times between imaging and analysis. In particular, cell segmentation, the process of identifying individual cells in an image, is a major bottleneck in this regard.
Here we present an alternate, cell-segmentation-free workflow based on PhenoRipper, an open-source software platform designed for the rapid analysis and exploration of microscopy images. The pipeline presented here is optimized for immunofluorescence microscopy images of cell cultures and requires minimal user intervention. Within half an hour, PhenoRipper can analyze data from a typical 96-well experiment and generate image profiles. Users can then visually explore their data, perform quality control on their experiment, ensure response to perturbations and check reproducibility of replicates. This facilitates a rapid feedback cycle between analysis and experiment, which is crucial during assay optimization. This protocol is useful not just as a first pass analysis for quality control, but also may be used as an end-to-end solution, especially for screening. The workflow described here scales to large data sets such as those generated by high-throughput screens, and has been shown to group experimental conditions by phenotype accurately over a wide range of biological systems. The PhenoBrowser interface provides an intuitive framework to explore the phenotypic space and relate image properties to biological annotations. Taken together, the protocol described here will lower the barriers to adopting quantitative analysis of image based screens.

Here we describe a workflow for rapidly analyzing and exploring collections of fluorescence microscopy images using PhenoRipper, a recently developed image-analysis platform.

Analyse rapide et exploration de microscopie par fluorescence Images

Despite rapid advances in high-throughput microscopy, quantitative image-based assays still pose significant challenges. While a variety of specialized ...

Open-source Single-particle Analysis for Super-resolution Microscopy with VirusMapper

Super-resolution fluorescence microscopy is currently revolutionizing cell biology research. Its capacity to break the resolution limit of around 300 nm allows for the routine imaging of nanoscale biological complexes and processes. This increase in resolution also means that methods popular in electron microscopy, such as single-particle analysis, can readily be applied to super-resolution fluorescence microscopy. By combining this analytical approach with super-resolution optical imaging, it becomes possible to take advantage of the molecule-specific labeling capacity of fluorescence microscopy to generate structural maps of molecular elements within a metastable structure. To this end, we have developed a novel algorithm &#8212; VirusMapper &#8212; packaged as an easy-to-use, high-performance, and high-throughput ImageJ plugin. This article presents an in-depth guide to this software, showcasing its ability to uncover novel structural features in biological molecular complexes. Here, we present how to assemble compatible data and provide a step-by-step protocol on how to use this algorithm to apply single-particle analysis to super-resolution images.

This manuscript uses the Fiji-based open-source software package VirusMapper to apply single-particle analysis to super-resolution microscopy images in order to generate precise models of nanoscale structure.

Open Source Analyse unique pour particules super-résolution Microscopie avec VirusMapper

Super-resolution fluorescence microscopy is currently revolutionizing cell biology research. Its capacity to break the resolution limit of around 300 nm ...

Ground State Depletion Super-resolution Imaging in Mammalian Cells

Advances in fluorescent microscopy and cell biology are intimately correlated, with the enhanced ability to visualize cellular events often leading to dramatic leaps in our understanding of how cells function. The development and availability of super-resolution microscopy has considerably extended the limits of optical resolution from ~250-20 nm. Biologists are no longer limited to describing molecular interactions in terms of colocalization within a diffraction limited area, rather it is now possible to visualize the dynamic interactions of individual molecules. Here, we outline a protocol for the visualization and quantification of cellular proteins by ground-state depletion microscopy&#160;for fixed cell imaging. We provide examples from two different membrane proteins, an element of the endoplasmic reticulum translocon, sec61&#946;, and a plasma membrane-localized voltage-gated L-type Ca2+ channel (CaV1.2). Discussed are the specific microscope parameters, fixation methods, photo-switching buffer formulation, and pitfalls and challenges of image processing.

This article outlines a protocol for the detection of one or more plasma and/or intracellular membrane proteins using Ground State Depletion (GSD) super-resolution microscopy in mammalian cells. Here, we discuss the benefits and considerations of using such approaches for the visualization and quantification of cellular proteins.

État fondamental l’appauvrissement Super-résolution imagerie dans les cellules de mammifères

Advances in fluorescent microscopy and cell biology are intimately correlated, with the enhanced ability to visualize cellular events often leading to ...

Sample Preparation and Imaging of Exosomes by Transmission Electron Microscopy

Exosomes are nano-sized extracellular vesicles secreted by body fluids and are known to represent the characteristics of cells that secrete them. The contents and morphology of the secreted vesicles reflect cell behavior or physiological status, for example cell growth, migration, cleavage, and death. The exosomes&#39; role may depend highly on size, and the size of exosomes varies from 30 to 300 nm. The most widely used method for exosome imaging is negative staining, while other results are based on Cryo-Transmission Electron Microscopy, Scanning Electron Microscopy, and Atomic Force Microscopy. The typical exosome&#39;s morphology assessed through negative staining is a cup-shape, but further details are not yet clear. An exosome well-characterized through structural study is necessary particular in medical and pharmaceutical fields. Therefore, function-dependent morphology should be verified by electron microscopy techniques such as labeling a specific protein in the detailed structure of exosome. To observe detailed structure, ultrathin sectioned images and negative stained images of exosomes were compared. In this protocol, we suggest transmission electron microscopy for the imaging of exosomes including negative staining, whole mount immuno-staining, block preparation, thin section, and immuno-gold labelling.

This protocol describes the various techniques necessary for transmission electron microscopy including negative staining, ultrathin sectioning for detailed structure, and immuno-gold labelling to determine the positions of specific proteins in exosomes.

Préparation des échantillons et l’imagerie des Exosomes par microscopie électronique à Transmission

Exosomes are nano-sized extracellular vesicles secreted by body fluids and are known to represent the characteristics of cells that secrete them. The ...

Miniaturized Sample Preparation for Transmission Electron Microscopy

Due to recent technological progress, cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) is rapidly becoming a standard method for the structural analysis of protein complexes to atomic resolution. However, protein isolation techniques and sample preparation methods for EM remain a bottleneck. A relatively small number (100,000 to a few million) of individual protein particles need to be imaged for the high-resolution analysis of proteins by the single particle EM approach, making miniaturized sample handling techniques and microfluidic principles feasible.
A miniaturized, paper-blotting-free EM grid preparation method for sample pre-conditioning, EM grid priming and post processing that only consumes nanoliter-volumes of sample is presented. The method uses a dispensing system with sub-nanoliter precision to control liquid uptake and EM grid priming, a platform to control the grid temperature thereby determining the relative humidity above the EM grid, and a pick-and-plunge-mechanism for sample vitrification. For cryo-EM, an EM grid is placed on the temperature-controlled stage and the sample is aspirated into a capillary. The capillary tip is positioned in proximity to the grid surface, the grid is loaded with the sample and excess is re-aspirated into the microcapillary. Subsequently, the sample film is stabilized and slightly thinned by controlled water evaporation regulated by the offset of the platform temperature relative to the dew-point. At a given point the pick-and-plunge mechanism is triggered, rapidly transferring the primed EM grid into liquid ethane for sample vitrification. Alternatively, sample-conditioning methods are available to prepare nanoliter-sized sample volumes for negative stain (NS) EM.
The methodologies greatly reduce sample consumption and avoid approaches potentially harmful to proteins, such as the filter paper blotting used in conventional methods. Furthermore, the minuscule amount of sample required allows novel experimental strategies, such as fast sample conditioning, combination with single-cell lysis for &#34;visual proteomics,&#34; or &#34;lossless&#34; total sample preparation for quantitative analysis of complex samples.

An instrument and methods for the preparation of nanoliter-sized sample volumes for transmission electron microscopy is presented. No paper-blotting steps are required, thus avoiding the detrimental consequences this can have for proteins, significantly reducing sample loss and enabling the analysis of single cell lysate for visual proteomics.

Préparation de l’échantillon miniaturisé pour la microscopie électronique à Transmission

Due to recent technological progress, cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) is rapidly becoming a standard method for the structural analysis of protein ...

Biological Sample Preparation by High-pressure Freezing, Microwave-assisted Contrast Enhancement, and Minimal Resin Embedding for Volume Imaging

The described sample preparation technique is designed to combine the best quality of ultrastructural preservation with the most suitable contrast for the imaging modality in a focused ion beam scanning electron microscope (FIB-SEM), which is used to obtain stacks of sequential images for 3D reconstruction and modelling. High-pressure freezing (HPF) allows close to native structural preservation, but the subsequent freeze substitution often does not provide sufficient contrast, especially for a bigger specimen, which is needed for high-quality imaging in the SEM required for 3D reconstruction. Therefore, in this protocol, after the freeze substitution, additional contrasting steps are carried out at room temperature. Although these steps are performed in a microwave, it is also possible to follow traditional bench processing, which requires longer incubation times.The subsequent embedding in minimal amounts of resin allows for faster and more precise targeting and preparation inside the FIB-SEM. This protocol is especially useful for samples that require preparation by high-pressure freezing for a reliable ultrastructural preservation but do not gain enough contrast during the freeze substitution for volume imaging using FIB-SEM. In combination with the minimal resin embedding, this protocol provides an efficient workflow for the acquisition of high-quality volume data.

Here we present a protocol for combining two sample processing techniques, high-pressure freezing and microwave-assisted sample processing, followed by minimal resin embedding for acquiring data with a focused ion beam scanning electron microscope (FIB-SEM). This is demonstrated using a mouse tibial nerve sample and Caenorhabditis elegans.

Préparation de l’échantillon biologique par congélation à haute pression, amélioration du contraste assistée par micro-ondes et minime résine enrobage pour l’imagerie de Volume

The described sample preparation technique is designed to combine the best quality of ultrastructural preservation with the most suitable contrast for the ...

Super-Resolution Live Cell Imaging of Subcellular Structures

There has long been a crucial tradeoff between spatial and temporal resolution in imaging. Imaging beyond the diffraction limit of light has traditionally been restricted to be used only on fixed samples or live cells outside of tissue labeled with strong fluorescent signal. Current super-resolution live cell imaging techniques require the use of special fluorescence probes, high illumination, multiple image acquisitions with post-acquisition processing, or often a combination of these processes. These prerequisites significantly limit the biological samples and contexts that this technique can be applied to.
Here we describe a method to perform super-resolution (~140 nm XY-resolution) time-lapse fluorescence live cell imaging in situ. This technique is also compatible with low fluorescent intensity, for example, EGFP or mCherry endogenously tagged at lowly expressed genes. As a proof-of-principle, we have used this method to visualize multiple subcellular structures in the Drosophila testis. During tissue preparation, both the cellular structure and tissue morphology are maintained within the dissected testis. Here, we use this technique to image microtubule dynamics, the interactions between microtubules and the nuclear membrane, as well as the attachment of microtubules to centromeres.
This technique requires special procedures in sample preparation, sample mounting and immobilizing of specimens. Additionally, the specimens must be maintained for several hours after dissection without compromising cellular function and activity. While we have optimized the conditions for live super-resolution imaging specifically in Drosophila male germline stem cells (GSCs) and progenitor germ cells in dissected testis tissue, this technique is broadly applicable to a variety of different cell types. The ability to observe cells under their physiological conditions without sacrificing either spatial or temporal resolution will serve as an invaluable tool to researchers seeking to address crucial questions in cell biology.

Presented here is a protocol for super-resolution live-cell imaging in intact tissue. We have standardized the conditions for imaging a highly sensitive adult stem cell population in its native tissue environment. This technique involves balancing temporal and spatial resolution to allow for the direct observation of biological phenomena in live tissue.

Imagerie de cellules vivantes à super-résolution de structures subcellulaires

There has long been a crucial tradeoff between spatial and temporal resolution in imaging. Imaging beyond the diffraction limit of light has traditionally ...