Name: exfoliation of egyptian blue and han blue, two alkali earth copper silicate-based pigments
Uploaded: 2014-04-24T15:30:00
Duration: 12 min 4 s
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Exfoliation of Egyptian Blue and Han Blue, Two Alkali Earth Copper Silicate-based Pigments at JoVE.com

We thank Prof. Mark Abbe (UGA) for providing the NIR imaging equipment and Dr. Rasik Raythatha (Solvay Performance Chemicals) for the barium carbonate used in this work. We acknowledge the efforts of Isaiah Norris (UGA undergraduate) and Terra Blevins (North Oconee High School), who helped test the synthetic methods.

1. Preparation of CaCuSi4O10
<ol>
	<li>Melt Flux Synthesis of CaCuSi4O10
	<ol>
		<li>Weigh out CaCO3, SiO2, and Cu2CO3(OH)2 in a 2:8:1 molar ratio: 0.1331 g (1.330 mmol) of CaCO3, 0.3196 g (5.319 mmol) of SiO2, 0.1470 g (0.6648 mmol) of Cu2CO3(OH)2. In addition, weigh out the flux components (12.5% by weight): 0.0375 g of Na2CO3, 0.0125 g of NaCl, and 0.0250 g of Na2B4O7.10H2O. Add these materials to a clean agate mortar.</li>
		<li>Hand grind for ~5 min with an agate pestle until the mixture becomes a homogeneous light green powder (Figures 1a and 2a). Transfer this mixture to a clean, dry platinum crucible.</li>
		<li>Heat the crucible in a furnace to 875 &#176;C (ramp rate of 2 &#176;C/min), hold at 875 &#176;C for 16 hr, and then cool down to room temperature (rate of 0.8 &#176;C/min).</li>
		<li>Remove the crystals from the crucible and gently crush them using a pestle.</li>
		<li>Allow the crystals to soak in 50 ml of 1 M aqueous HCl overnight to remove the melt flux.</li>
		<li>Filter the crystals and wash with deionized water to fully remove any remaining melt flux. 
		Note: This material should be ground into a finer powder for powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD) analysis (Figure 5). It also can be characterized by optical microscopy (Figure 3), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) (Figure 4), and NIR photography (Figure 8).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Solid State Synthesis of CaCuSi4O10
	<ol>
		<li>Weigh out CaCO3, SiO2, and CuO in a 1:4:1 molar ratio: 0.1331 g (1.330 mmol) of CaCO3, 0.3196 g (5.319 mmol) of SiO2, and 0.1058 g CuO (1.330 mmol) and add to a clean agate mortar.</li>
		<li>Dampen the powder mixture with 1-2 ml acetone and hand grind with an agate pestle for ~5 min. Transfer the resulting light gray powder (Figures 1b and 2b) into a platinum crucible.</li>
		<li>Heat the crucible in a box furnace to 1,020 &#176;C at a ramp rate of 5 &#176;C/min, hold for 16 hr, and then cool down to room temperature</li>
		<li>Scrape out the loose, light blue-gray powder using a polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) spatula. 
		Note: The product can be characterized by optical microscopy (Figure 3), SEM (Figure 4), PXRD (Figure 5), and NIR photography (Figure 8).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
2. Synthesis of BaCuSi4O10
<ol>
	<li>Melt Flux Synthesis of BaCuSi4O10 
	<ol>
		<li>Weigh out BaCO3, SiO2, and CuO in a 1:4:1 molar ratio: 0.2085 g BaCO3 (1.057 mmol), 0.2539 g SiO2 (4.226 mmol), and 0.0840 g CuO (1.056 mmol). In addition, weigh out the flux component (12.5% by weight): 0.0765 g of PbO. Add these materials to a clean agate mortar.</li>
		<li>Hand grind for ~5 min with an agate pestle until the mixture becomes a homogeneous light gray powder (Figures 1c and 2c). Transfer this mixture to a clean, dry platinum crucible.</li>
		<li>Heat the crucible in a furnace to 950 &#176;C (ramp rate of 2 &#176;C/min), hold at 950 &#176;C for 24 hr, then slowly cool down to 700 &#176;C (rate of 0.1 &#176;C/min), and finally cool to room temperature.</li>
		<li>Remove the crystals from the crucible and gently crush them using a pestle.</li>
		<li>Allow the crystals to soak in 50 ml of 1 M aqueous HNO3 overnight to remove the melt flux.</li>
		<li>Filter the crystals and wash with deionized water to fully remove the remainder of the melt flux. Note: This material should be ground into a finer powder for PXRD analysis (Figure 6). It also can be characterized by optical microscopy (Figure 3) and NIR photography (Figure 8).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Solid State Synthesis of BaCuSi4O10
	<ol>
		<li>Weigh out BaCO3, SiO2, and CuO in a 1:4:1 molar ratio: 0.2085 g BaCO3 (1.057 mmol), 0.2539 g SiO2 (4.226 mmol), and 0.0840 g CuO (1.056 mmol) and add to a clean agate mortar.</li>
		<li>Dampen the powder mixture with 1-2 ml acetone and hand grind with an agate pestle for ~5 min. Transfer the resulting light gray powder (Figures 1d and 2d) into a platinum crucible.</li>
		<li>Heat the crucible in a box furnace to 960 &#176;C at a ramp rate of 5 &#176;C/min and hold for 16 hr, then cool to room temperature.</li>
		<li>Scrape out the loose blue powder using a polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) spatula. Note: The product can be characterized by optical microscopy (Figure 3), PXRD (Figure 6), and NIR photography (Figure 8).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
3. Exfoliation of CaCuSi4O10
<ol>
	<li>Charge a 50 ml round bottom flask with 0.50 g of CaCuSi4O10, 40 ml of deionized water, and a glass-coated magnetic stir bar.</li>
	<li>Attach a water-cooled condenser to the flask. Heat the reaction to 85 &#176;C with magnetic stirring at 400 rpm for two weeks.</li>
	<li>Remove from the heat source, allow the solution to settle undisturbed overnight, and then filter the supernatant through a 0.4 &#181;m membrane filter. Vacuum dry the solids. Note: The product is a light blue powder that can be characterized by optical microscopy (Figure 3), PXRD (Figure 5), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) (Figure 7), and NIR photography (Figure 8).</li>
</ol>
4. Exfoliation of BaCuSi4O10
<ol>
	<li>Charge a 50 ml plastic centrifuge tube with 0.14 g of BaCuSi4O10 and 20 ml of N-vinyl pyrrolidone.</li>
	<li>With the centrifuge tube immersed in an ice/water bath, sonicate with a probe ultrasonicator at 40% amplitude (17 W) for 1 hr.</li>
	<li>Let the dispersion settle undisturbed overnight, and then decant the supernatant into a new centrifuge tube.</li>
	<li>Spin down at 10,286 x g using a centrifuge. Decant the supernatant, leaving the nanosheets at the bottom of the centrifuge tube.</li>
	<li>Resuspend this material in 20 ml of water with a few minutes of bath sonication. To isolate a powder, filter through a 0.4 &#181;m membrane filter and vacuum dry the solids. Note: The product is a light blue powder that can be characterized by optical microscopy (Figure 3), PXRD (Figure 6), TEM (Figure 7), and NIR photography (Figure 8).</li>
</ol>
5. Ink Preparation
<ol>
	<li>Disperse ~0.10 g of CaCuSi4O10 nanosheets in 5 ml&#160;of deionized water using bath sonication for ~10 min. Note: This ink (Figure 9) can be used for painting, printing, etc. See Figure 10 for a representative example where the ink was applied to paper with a brush.</li>
</ol>
6. Near Infrared Photographic Imaging
<ol>
	<li>Irradiate the samples using red light (e.g.&#160;with a red light-emitting diode array), taking care to eliminate any other sources of light.</li>
	<li>Photograph using a camera modified to image in the near infrared region. Use f stop setting f/22 and an exposure time of 0.5 sec.</li>
</ol>

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The authors have no competing financial interests.

The preparation of Egyptian blue pigment, a mixture of mostly CaCuSi4O10 and SiO2, is a well-studied process4,13-21. The numerous reported procedures may be categorized as either melt flux or solid-state reactions. Two major advantages of the melt flux approach are that it permits lower reaction temperatures (&#60;900 &#176;C) and allows CaCuSi4O10 crystals to nucleate and grow from a molten glass phase20. The flux component is typically an alkali salt (e.g.&#160;Na2CO3) or borate compound (e.g.&#160;borax). In comparison, the solid-state syntheses omit the flux but require higher temperatures (~1,000 &#176;C) for the reaction between Ca, CuO, and SiO2 sources to reach completion.
Although the synthesis of Han blue pigment is not as well studied as that of Egyptian blue4,22-25, the preparation of BaCuSi4O10 follows similar melt flux and solid-state routes with two differences: (1) a PbO flux should be used, and (2) the reaction temperatures must be more closely controlled because of alternative Ba-Cu-Si-O phases that can form (e.g.&#160;BaCuSi2O6).
These points are illustrated by the detailed procedures and results described in this paper. First, for all methods, the starting materials should be ground to a smooth powder (Figures 1a-d) consisting of 5-20 &#181;m particles (characterized by SEM; Figures 2a-d). Next, the use of a significant amount of flux (12.5% by weight) in the preparation of CaCuSi4O10 and BaCuSi4O10 leads to highly crystalline products, which are characterized by intense blue coloration (Figures 3a and&#160;3c), relatively large particle sizes (Figure 4a), and strong PXRD patterns (Figures 5a and 6a). The diminished isolated yields (~70%) from these preparations are caused by adhesion of the melted reaction mixtures to the crucible. In comparison, CaCuSi4O10 and BaCuSi4O10 prepared by the solid-state route exhibit less intense coloration (Figures 3b and 3d) and smaller particle sizes (Figure 4b). As synthesized, these products are powders that can be isolated in near-quantitative yields. Thus, for both CaCuSi4O10 and BaCuSi4O10, the advantages of flux and the importance of reaction temperature cannot be overstated.
Remarkably, the exfoliation of CaCuSi4O10 and BaCuSi4O10 occurs under simple aqueous conditions. In the case of CaCuSi4O10, this reaction is quite slow at room temperature (&#8805;6 weeks to see any appreciable exfoliation), but it becomes synthetically useful at 80 &#176;C (substantial exfoliation after 2 weeks). In comparison, the exfoliation of BaCuSi4O10 is sluggish even at 80 &#176;C, and so we apply an even greater energy input in the form of ultrasonication. These reactions are highly reliable with two caveats. For CaCuSi4O10, it is important to use a glass-coated stir bar; if a standard PTFE-coated stir bar is used, we find that PTFE byproducts contaminate the CaCuSi4O10 nanosheet product. For BaCuSi4O10, it is important to control the ultrasonication power and time so that the reaction is stopped before the nanosheets become degraded.
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) of the nanosheet products shows that these very thin materials have lateral dimensions ranging from hundreds of nanometers to several microns. In general these lateral dimensions correlate with the crystallite size of the three-dimensional starting material. In prior work, atomic force microscopy provided topographic mapping that demonstrated the single-layer thicknesses (~1.2 nm) of these nanosheets12. Photographs of powder CaCuSi4O10 and BaCuSi4O10 nanosheet samples (Figures 3e-h) show that their color is less intense than that of the starting materials, a direct result of nanostructuring.
Additional information is provided by PXRD (Figures 5 and 6), which reveals basal cleavage along the (001) plane and preferred orientation along the {00l} series for all nanosheet samples. These features reflect the stacked alignment of these highly anisotropic nanomaterials when drop-cast onto a substrate. Furthermore, the characteristic NIR emission of CaCuSi4O10 at ~910 nm and BaCuSi4O10 at ~950 nm is illustrated in a NIR photograph of all eight samples (Figure 8).
The solution processing of CaCuSi4O10 can be accomplished by simply preparing a colloidal dispersion of CaCuSi4O10 nanosheets (Figure 9) to use as an ink. This ink then can be applied to a substrate via spin coating, spray coating, ink jet printing12, or simply brushing (Figure 10). Importantly, the NIR emission properties of CaCuSi4O10 are retained at all stages of this process. These new possibilities highlight the contrast between CaCuSi4O10 nanosheets and the traditional use of Egyptian blue pigment, a highly granular material that is challenging to incorporate into a smooth paint.

Vibrant colors were prized throughout the ancient world. Even today, we can still see the remains of pigments and dyes created by every major culture. Remarkably, two of the most famous synthetic blue pigments share a similar chemical composition and structure, despite having been developed at widely different times and places. The colored components of both Egyptian blue, CaCuSi4O10, and Han blue, BaCuSi4O10, belong to the alkali earth copper tetrasilicate series, ACuSi4O10 (A = Ca, Sr, Ba)1, as well as the larger gillespite group, ABSi4O10 (B = Fe, Cu, Cr)2,3.
Beyond traditional pigment applications, current scientific interest in these materials centers on their strong near infrared (NIR) emission properties. This emission originates from the Cu2+ in square planar coordination; these ions are linked by tetrahedral silicate moieties within the three-dimensional crystal structure, and the resulting layers alternate with alkali earth ions4-6. Recent technical highlights include NIR imaging to identify Egyptian and Han blue pigments on cultural heritage artifacts7,8, lanthanide doping of ACuSi4O10 to enhance NIR reflectance properties and open new energy transfer pathways9,10, the use of ACuSi4O10 as the active material for optical sensors11, and the exfoliation of CaCuSi4O10 into monolayer nanosheets12.
In particular, this last example provides a way to nanostructure CaCuSi4O10 so that it can be handled as a colloidal dispersion rather than as a particulate solid12. Because colloidal dispersions are compatible with solution-processing techniques (e.g.&#160;spin coating, ink jet printing, layer-by-layer deposition), this advance opens new application areas that range from security inks to biomedical imaging. The experimental protocols illustrated in this contribution will enable researchers from diverse backgrounds to prepare, characterize, and use CaCuSi4O10 and BaCuSi4O10 nanosheets in their work.

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	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:317px;">Name of Material/ Equipment</td>
			<td style="width:161px;">Supplier</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Catalog Number</td>
			<td style="width:527px;">Comments/Description</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;">Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3)</td>
			<td style="width:161px;">Sigma Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">S7795</td>
			<td>bioXtra, &#8805; 99.0 %</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;">Calcium carbonate (CaCO3)</td>
			<td style="width:161px;">Sigma Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">C4830</td>
			<td>bioXtra, &#8805; 99.0 %</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="44">
			<td height="44" style="height:44px;">Barium carbonate (BaCO3)</td>
			<td style="width:161px;">Solvay Performance Chemicals</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>Research sample: Electronic-grade purity, nanocrystalline</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;">Copper (II) carbonate basic (Cu2CO3(OH)2)&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:161px;">Sigma Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">207896</td>
			<td>Reagent grade</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Copper (II) oxide (CuO)&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:161px;">Sigma Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">450812</td>
			<td>99.99 % trace metals base</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;">Silicon dioxide (SiO2)</td>
			<td style="width:161px;">Sigma Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">S5631</td>
			<td>~99 %, particle size 0.5-10 &#956;m (approx. 80% between 1-5 &#956;m)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="26">
			<td height="26" style="height:26px;">Sodium tetraborate decahydrate (Na4B4O7.10H2O)</td>
			<td style="width:161px;">Sigma Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">S9640</td>
			<td>ACS &#8805; 99.5 %</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Sodium chloride (NaCl)&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:161px;">Sigma Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">S9888</td>
			<td>ACS &#8805; 99.0 %</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Lead (II) oxide (PbO)&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:161px;">Sigma Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">402982</td>
			<td>ACS &#8805; 99.0 %</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="25">
			<td height="25" style="height:25px;">N-Vinylpyrrolidinone (C6H9NO)</td>
			<td style="width:161px;">Sigma Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">V3409</td>
			<td>contains sodium hydroxide as inhibitor, ACS &#8805; 99.0 %</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:317px;">Box Furnace</td>
			<td style="width:161px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:317px;">Box Furnace</td>
			<td style="width:161px;">Carbolite</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:317px;">Bath Sonicator</td>
			<td style="width:161px;">Branson</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:317px;">Ultrasonicator</td>
			<td style="width:161px;">Qsonica</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>Q700 Sonicator</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:317px;">Camera</td>
			<td style="width:161px;">custom modification of Nikon D3000 camera</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">n/a</td>
			<td>Xnite Nikon D3000 camera with a Nikkor 18-200 mm lens and a Xnite 830 filter&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:317px;">Light Source</td>
			<td style="width:161px;">Excled Ltd.</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">PAR64</td>
			<td>LED Colour Beamer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:317px;">Light Microscope</td>
			<td>Leica</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>mz6 Stereomicroscope with Spot Idea camera and Software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:317px;">Powder X-Ray Diffractometer</td>
			<td>Bruker&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>D8-Advance diffractometer (Co-K&#945; radiation source)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:317px;">Transmission Electron Microscope</td>
			<td>FEI Technai</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:317px;">Scanning Electron Microscope</td>
			<td>FEI</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:317px;">Membrane filters</td>
			<td style="width:161px;">Millipore</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">HTTP04700</td>
			<td>Isopore Membrane filter with 0.4 &#181;m pore size</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

exfoliation of egyptian blue and han blue, two alkali earth copper silicate-based pigments

In a visualized example of the ancient past connecting with modern times, we describe the preparation and exfoliation of CaCuSi4O10 and BaCuSi4O10, the colored components of the historic Egyptian blue and Han blue pigments. The bulk forms of these materials are synthesized by both melt flux and solid-state routes, which provide some control over the crystallite size of the product. The melt flux process is time intensive, but it produces relatively large crystals at lower reaction temperatures. In comparison, the solid-state method is quicker yet requires higher reaction temperatures and yields smaller crystallites. Upon stirring in hot water, CaCuSi4O10 spontaneously exfoliates into monolayer nanosheets, which are characterized by TEM and PXRD. BaCuSi4O10 on the other hand requires ultrasonication in organic solvents to achieve exfoliation. Near infrared imaging illustrates that both the bulk and nanosheet forms of CaCuSi4O10 and BaCuSi4O10 are strong near infrared emitters. Aqueous CaCuSi4O10 and BaCuSi4O10 nanosheet dispersions are useful because they provide a new way to handle, characterize, and process these materials in colloidal form.

The described syntheses of CaCuSi4O10 and BaCuSi4O10 provide approximately 0.5 g of product per batch. Isolated yields of CaCuSi4O10 from the melt flux and solid-state syntheses typically range from 70-75% and 90-95%, respectively. For BaCuSi4O10, the isolated yields from the melt flux and solid-state syntheses typically range from 65-70% and 95-99%, respectively.
The textures of all of the prepared materials, as well as differences in the intensity of their blue color due to varying crystallite sizes, are visible by low magnification optical microscopy (Figures 3a-h). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images confirm that the solid-state method of synthesizing CaCuSi4O10 produces ~1-15 &#181;m primary crystallites (Figure 4b) whereas melt flux conditions lead to ~5-50 &#181;m crystallites (Figure 4a). Powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD) patterns for CaCuSi4O10 (Figures 5a and 5c) and BaCuSi4O10 (Figures 6a and 6c) showcase the composition and phase purity of these products.
Representative transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images show the nanosheet morphology of the exfoliated products (Figure 7). In addition, NIR photographic imaging shows the strong luminescence of both the bulk and exfoliated materials (Figure 8). A simple way to illustrate the solution processability of CaCuSi4O10 nanosheets is to prepare an aqueous ink (Figure 9) suitable for painting (Figure 10).
<img alt="Figure 1" fo:content-width="5in" fo:src="/files/ftp_upload/51686/51686fig1highres.jpg" src="/files/ftp_upload/51686/51686fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1.&#160;Photographs of the hand-ground starting materials.&#160;(a) CaCuSi4O10 melt flux, (b) CaCuSi4O10 solid-state, (c) BaCuSi4O10 melt flux, and (d) BaCuSi4O10 solid-state syntheses. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/51686/51686fig1highres.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" fo:content-width="5in" fo:src="/files/ftp_upload/51686/51686fig2highres.jpg" src="/files/ftp_upload/51686/51686fig2.jpg" /> 
Figure 2.&#160;Scanning Electron Microscopy. Images of the hand-ground starting materials for the (a) CaCuSi4O10 melt flux, (b) CaCuSi4O10 solid-state, (c) BaCuSi4O10 melt flux, and (d) BaCuSi4O10 solid-state syntheses. All samples were coated with gold prior to imaging. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/51686/51686fig2highres.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 3" fo:content-width="5in" fo:src="/files/ftp_upload/51686/51686fig3highres.jpg" src="/files/ftp_upload/51686/51686fig3.jpg" /> 
Figure 3.&#160;Optical Microscopy. Bulk CaCuSi4O10 prepared by melt flux (a) and solid state (b) procedures. Bulk BaCuSi4O10 prepared by melt flux (c) and solid state (d) procedures. Exfoliated products (e-h) of (a-d), respectively. All images share the 1 mm scale bar show in panel (a). <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/51686/51686fig3highres.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 4" fo:content-width="5in" fo:src="/files/ftp_upload/51686/51686fig4highres.jpg" src="/files/ftp_upload/51686/51686fig4.jpg" /> 
Figure 4.&#160;Scanning Electron Microscopy. Images of bulk CaCuSi4O10 made by melt flux (a) and solid state (b) methods. Samples were coated with gold prior to imaging. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/51686/51686fig4highres.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 5" fo:content-width="5in" src="/files/ftp_upload/51686/51686fig5highres.jpg" width="500" /> 
Figure 5.&#160;Powder X-Ray Diffraction: CaCuSi4O10. Patterns for bulk CaCuSi4O10 prepared by melt flux (a) and solid state (c) methods. Asterisks denote a silica impurity. Patterns for exfoliated CaCuSi4O10, (b) and (d), prepared from (a) and (c), respectively. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/51686/51686fig5highres.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 6" fo:content-width="5in" src="/files/ftp_upload/51686/51686fig6highres.jpg" width="500" /> 
Figure 6.&#160;Powder X-Ray Diffraction: BaCuSi4O10. Patterns for bulk BaCuSi4O10 prepared by melt flux (a) and solid state (c) methods. Asterisk denotes a silica impurity. Patterns for exfoliated BaCuSi4O10, (b) and (d), prepared from (a) and (c), respectively. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/51686/51686fig6highres.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 7" fo:content-width="5in" fo:src="/files/ftp_upload/51686/51686fig7highres.jpg" src="/files/ftp_upload/51686/51686fig7.jpg" /> 
Figure 7. Transmission Electron Microscopy. Representative images of exfoliated CaCuSi4O10 derived from bulk CaCuSi4O10 made by melt flux (a) or solid state (b) methods. Representative images of exfoliated BaCuSi4O10 derived from bulk BaCuSi4O10 made by melt flux (c) or solid state (d) methods. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/51686/51686fig7highres.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 8" fo:content-width="5in" fo:src="/files/ftp_upload/51686/51686fig8highres.jpg" src="/files/ftp_upload/51686/51686fig8.jpg" /> 
Figure 8.&#160;Near Infrared Imaging. Luminescence of bulk CaCuSi4O10 prepared by melt flux (a) and solid state (b) procedures. Luminescence of bulk BaCuSi4O10 prepared by melt flux (c) and solid state (d) procedures. Luminescence of the exfoliated products (e-h) of (a-d), respectively. Powder samples are contained within glass vials, and the entire set of samples was imaged at once. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/51686/51686fig8highres.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 9" fo:content-width="5in" fo:src="/files/ftp_upload/51686/51686fig9highres.jpg" src="/files/ftp_upload/51686/51686fig9.jpg" /> 
Figure 9.&#160;Photograph of a CaCuSi4O10 nanosheet ink in a vial.
<img alt="Figure 10" fo:content-width="5in" fo:src="/files/ftp_upload/51686/51686fig10highres.jpg" src="/files/ftp_upload/51686/51686fig10.jpg" /> 
Figure 10.&#160;Near Infrared Imaging. A rudimentary painting with the CaCuSi4O10 nanosheet ink that illustrates both its simple application and its luminescence properties.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Exfoliation of Egyptian Blue and Han Blue, Two Alkali Earth Copper Silicate-based Pigments at JoVE.com

Exfoliation of Egyptian Blue and Han Blue, Two Alkali Earth Copper Silicate-based Pigments

The preparation and exfoliation of CaCuSi4O10&#160;and BaCuSi4O10 are described. Upon stirring in hot water, CaCuSi4O10 spontaneously exfoliates into monolayers, whereas BaCuSi4O10&#160;requires ultrasonication in organic solvents. Near infrared (NIR) imaging illustrates the NIR emission properties of these materials, and aqueous dispersions of these nanomaterials are useful for solution processing.

In a visualized example of the ancient past connecting with modern times, we describe the preparation and exfoliation of CaCuSi4O10 and BaCuSi4O10, the ...

exfoliation-egyptian-blue-han-blue-two-alkali-earth-copper-silicate

Research

JoVE Journal

Chemistry

Transport of Surface-modified Carbon Nanotubes through a Soil Column

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are widely manufactured nanoparticles, which are being utilized in a number of consumer products, such as sporting goods, electronics and biomedical applications. Due to their accelerating production and use, CNTs constitute a potential environmental risk if they are released to soil and groundwater systems. It is therefore essential to improve the current understanding of environmental fate and transport of CNTs. The transport and retention of CNTs in both natural and artificial media have been reported in literature, but the findings widely vary and are thus not conclusive. There are a number of physical and chemical parameters responsible for variation in retention and transport. In this study, a complete procedure of selected multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) is presented starting from their surface modification to a complete set of laboratory column experiments at critical physical and chemical scenarios. Results indicate that the stability of the commercially available MWCNTs are critical with their attached surface functional group which can also influence the transport and retention of MWCNT through the surrounding medium.

Surface properties of a nanoparticle are important for their interaction with the surrounding medium. Therefore the surface modification of carbon nanotubes can be critical for their transport and retention through porous media. Here, lab scale column experiments are used to understand the possible transport and retention of these nanoparticles.

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are widely manufactured nanoparticles, which are being utilized in a number of consumer products, such as sporting goods, ...

Metal-silicate Partitioning at High Pressure and Temperature: Experimental Methods and a Protocol to Suppress Highly Siderophile Element Inclusions

Estimates of the primitive upper mantle (PUM) composition reveal a depletion in many of the siderophile (iron-loving) elements, thought to result from their extraction to the core during terrestrial accretion. Experiments to investigate the partitioning of these elements between metal and silicate melts suggest that the PUM composition is best matched if metal-silicate equilibrium occurred at high pressures and temperatures, in a deep magma ocean environment. The behavior of the most highly siderophile elements (HSEs) during this process however, has remained enigmatic. Silicate run-products from HSE solubility experiments are commonly contaminated by dispersed metal inclusions that hinder the measurement of element concentrations in the melt. The resulting uncertainty over the true solubility and metal-silicate partitioning of these elements has made it difficult to predict their expected depletion in PUM. Recently, several studies have employed changes to the experimental design used for high pressure and temperature solubility experiments in order to suppress the formation of metal inclusions. The addition of Au (Re, Os, Ir, Ru experiments) or elemental Si (Pt experiments) to the sample acts to alter either the geometry or rate of sample reduction respectively, in order to avoid transient metal oversaturation of the silicate melt. This contribution outlines procedures for using the piston-cylinder and multi-anvil apparatus to conduct solubility and metal-silicate partitioning experiments respectively. A protocol is also described for the synthesis of uncontaminated run-products from HSE solubility experiments in which the oxygen fugacity is similar to that during terrestrial core-formation. Time-resolved LA-ICP-MS spectra are presented as evidence for the absence of metal-inclusions in run-products from earlier studies, and also confirm that the technique may be extended to investigate Ru. Examples are also given of how these data may be applied.

We present a procedure to determine the metal-silicate partitioning of siderophile elements, emphasizing techniques that suppress the formation of metal inclusions in experiments for the noble metals. The results of these experiments are used to demonstrate the effect of core-formation on the highly siderophile element composition of the mantle.

Estimates of the primitive upper mantle (PUM) composition reveal a depletion in many of the siderophile (iron-loving) elements, thought to result from ...

Chemical Gardens as Flow-through Reactors Simulating Natural Hydrothermal Systems

Here we report experimental simulations of hydrothermal chimney growth using injection chemical garden methods. The versatility of this type of experiment allows for testing of various proposed ocean / hydrothermal fluid chemistries that could have driven reactions toward the origin of life in environments on the early Earth, early Mars, or even other worlds such as the icy moons of the outer planets. We show experiments that include growth of chemical garden structures under anoxic conditions simulating the early Earth, inclusion of trace components of phosphates / organics in the injection solution to incorporate them into the structure, a switch of the injection solution to introduce a secondary precipitating anion, and the measurement of membrane potentials generated by chemical gardens. Using this method, self-assembling chemical garden structures were formed that mimic the natural chimneys precipitated at submarine hydrothermal springs, and these precipitates can be used successfully as flow-through reactors by feeding through multiple successive &#8220;hydrothermal&#8221; injections.

We describe chemical garden formation via injection experiments that allow for laboratory simulations of natural chemical garden systems that form at submarine hydrothermal vents.

Here we report experimental simulations of hydrothermal chimney growth using injection chemical garden methods. The versatility of this type of experiment ...

Synthesis and Exfoliation of Discotic Zirconium Phosphates to Obtain Colloidal Liquid Crystals

Due to their abundance in natural clay and potential applications in advanced materials, discotic nanoparticles are of interest to scientists and engineers. Growth of such anisotropic nanocrystals through a simple chemical method is a challenging task. In this study, we fabricate discotic nanodisks of zirconium phosphate [Zr(HPO4)2&#183;H2O] as a model material using hydrothermal, reflux and microwave-assisted methods. Growth of crystals is controlled by duration time, temperature, and concentration of reacting species. The novelty of the adopted methods is that discotic crystals of size ranging from hundred nanometers to few micrometers can be obtained while keeping the polydispersity well within control. The layered discotic crystals are converted to monolayers by exfoliation with tetra-(n)-butyl ammonium hydroxide [(C4H9)4NOH, TBAOH]. Exfoliated disks show isotropic and nematic liquid crystal phases. Size and polydispersity of disk suspensions is highly important in deciding their phase behavior.

A two dimensional model material of discotic zirconium phosphate was developed. The inorganic crystal with lamellar structure was synthesized by hydrothermal, reflux, and microwave-assisted methods. On exfoliation with organic molecules, layered crystals can be converted to monolayers, and nematic liquid crystal phase was formed at sufficient concentration of monolayers.

Due to their abundance in natural clay and potential applications in advanced materials, discotic nanoparticles are of interest to scientists and ...

Extraction of Ramie Fiber in Alkali Hydrogen Peroxide System Supported by Controlled-release Alkali Source

This protocol demonstrates a method for ramie fiber extraction by scouring raw ramie in an alkali hydrogen peroxide system supported by a controlled-release alkali source. The fiber extracted from ramie is a type of textile material of great importance. In previous studies, ramie fiber was extracted in an alkali hydrogen peroxide system supported only by sodium hydroxide.However, due to the strong alkalinity of sodium hydroxide, the oxidation reaction speed of hydrogen peroxide was difficult to control and thus resulted in great damage to the treated fiber. In this protocol, a controlled-release alkali source, which is composed of sodium hydroxide and magnesium hydroxide, is used to provide an alkali condition and buffer the pH value of the alkali hydrogen peroxidesystem. The substitution rate of magnesium hydroxide can adjust the pH value of the hydrogen peroxide system and has great influence on the fiber properties. The pH value and oxidation-reduction potential (ORP) value, which represents the oxidation ability of alkali hydrogen peroxide system, were monitored using a pH meter and ORP meter, respectively. The residual hydrogen peroxide content in the alkali hydrogen peroxide system during the extraction process and the chemical oxygen demand (COD) value of wastewater after fiber extraction are tested by KMnO4 titration method. The yield of fiber is measured using a precision electronic balance, and residual gums of fiber are tested by a chemical analysis method. The polymerization degree (PD value) of fiber is tested by an intrinsic viscosity method using the Ubbelohde viscometer. The tensile property of fiber, including tenacity, elongation, and rupture, is measured using a fiber strength instrument. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction are used to characterize the functional groups and crystal property of fiber. This protocol proves that the controlled-release alkali source can improve the properties of the fiber extracted in an alkali hydrogen peroxide system.

Presented here is a protocol for extraction of ramie fiber in alkali hydrogen peroxide system supported by controlled-release alkali source.

This protocol demonstrates a method for ramie fiber extraction by scouring raw ramie in an alkali hydrogen peroxide system supported by a ...

Determination of Thermodynamic Properties of Alkaline Earth-liquid Metal Alloys Using the Electromotive Force Technique

A novel electrochemical cell based on a CaF2 solid-state electrolyte has been developed to measure the electromotive force (emf) of binary alkaline earth-liquid metal alloys as functions of both composition and temperature in order to acquire thermodynamic data. The cell consists of a chemically stable solid-state CaF2-AF2 electrolyte (where A is the alkaline-earth element such as Ca, Sr, or Ba), with binary A-B alloy (where B is the liquid metal such as Bi or Sb) working electrodes, and a pure A metal reference electrode. Emf data are collected over a temperature range of 723 K to 1,123 K in 25 K increments for multiple alloy compositions per experiment and the results are analyzed to yield activity values, phase transition temperatures, and partial molar entropies/enthalpies for each composition.

This protocol describes the measurement of the electromotive force of alkaline-earth elements in liquid metal alloys at high temperatures (723-1,123 K) to determine their thermodynamic properties, including activity, partial molar entropy, partial molar enthalpy, and phase transition temperatures, over a wide composition range.

A novel electrochemical cell based on a CaF2 solid-state electrolyte has been developed to measure the electromotive force (emf) of binary alkaline ...

Reliable Mechanochemistry: Protocols for Reproducible Outcomes of Neat and Liquid Assisted Ball-mill Grinding Experiments

The equilibrium outcomes of ball mill grinding can dramatically change as a function of even tiny variations in the experimental conditions such as the presence of very small amounts of added solvent. To reproducibly and accurately capture this sensitivity, the experimentalist needs to carefully consider every single factor that can affect the ball mill grinding reaction under investigation, from ensuring the grinding jars are clean and dry before use, to accurately adding the stoichiometry of the starting materials, to validating that the delivery of solvent volume is accurate, to ensuring that the interaction between the solvent and the powder is well understood and, if necessary, a specific soaking time is added to the procedure. Preliminary kinetic studies are essential to determine the necessary milling time to achieve equilibrium. Only then can exquisite phase composition curves be obtained as a function of the solvent concentration under ball mill liquid assisted grinding (LAG). By using strict and careful procedures analogous to the ones here presented, such milling equilibrium curves can be obtained for virtually all milling systems. The system we use to demonstrate these procedures is a disulfide exchange reaction starting from the equimolar mixture of two homodimers to obtain at equilibrium quantitative heterodimer. The latter is formed by ball mill grinding as two different polymorphs, Form A and Form B. The ratio R = [Form B] / ([Form A] + [Form B]) at milling equilibrium depends on the nature and concentration of the solvent in the milling jar.

We present detailed procedures to produce experimental equilibrium curves of the phase composition as a function of solvent concentration in a solid state system under milling conditions.

The equilibrium outcomes of ball mill grinding can dramatically change as a function of even tiny variations in the experimental conditions such as the ...

Exfoliation and Analysis of Large-area, Air-Sensitive Two-Dimensional Materials

We describe methods for producing and analyzing large, thin flakes of air-sensitive two-dimensional materials. Thin flakes of layered or van der Waals crystals are produced using mechanical exfoliation, in which layers are peeled off a bulk crystal using adhesive tape. This method produces high-quality flakes, but they are often small and can be hard to find, particularly for materials with relatively high cleavage energies such as black phosphorus. By heating the substrate and the tape, two-dimensional material adhesion to the substrate is promoted, and the flake yield can be increased by up to a factor of ten. After exfoliation, it is necessary to image or otherwise analyze these flakes but some two-dimensional materials are sensitive to oxygen or water and will degrade when exposed air. We have designed and tested a hermetic transfer cell to temporarily maintain the inert environment of a glovebox so that air-sensitive flakes can be imaged and analyzed with minimal degradation. The compact design of the transfer cell is such that optical analysis of sensitive materials can be performed outside of a glovebox without specialized equipment or modifications to existing equipment.

A method for exfoliating large thin flakes of air sensitive two-dimensional materials and safely transporting them for analysis outside of a glovebox is presented.

We describe methods for producing and analyzing large, thin flakes of air-sensitive two-dimensional materials. Thin flakes of layered or van der Waals ...

Accumulation and Analysis of Cuprous Ions in a Copper Sulfate Plating Solution

Knowledge of the behavior of cuprous ions (monovalent copper ion: Cu(I)) in a copper sulfate plating bath is important for improving the plating process. We successfully developed a method to quantitatively and easily measure Cu(I) in a plating solution and used it for evaluation of the solution. In this paper, a quantitative absorption spectrum measurement and a time-resolved injection measurement of Cu(I) concentrations by a color reaction are described. This procedure is effective as a method to reproduce and elucidate the phenomenon occurring in the plating bath in the laboratory. First, the formation and accumulation process of Cu(I) in solution by electrolysis of a plating solution is shown. The amount of Cu(I) in the solution is increased by electrolysis at higher current values &#8203;&#8203;than the usual plating process. For the determination of Cu(I), BCS (bathocuproinedisulfonic acid, disodium salt), a reagent that selectively reacts with Cu(I), is used. The concentration of Cu(I) can be calculated from the absorbance of the Cu(I)-BCS complex. Next, the time measurement of the color reaction is described. The color reaction curve of Cu(I) and BCS measured by the injection method can be decomposed into an instantaneous component and a delay component. By analysis of these components, the holding structure of Cu(I) can be clarified, and this information is important when predicting the quality of the plating film to be produced. This method is used to facilitate the evaluation of the plating bath in the production line.

Here, accumulation of cuprous ions in a copper sulfate plating solution in a model experiment and an analysis based on quantitative measurements are described. This experiment reproduces the accumulation process of cuprous ions in the plating bath.

Knowledge of the behavior of cuprous ions (monovalent copper ion: Cu(I)) in a copper sulfate plating bath is important for improving the plating process. ...

[(DPEPhos)(bcp)Cu]PF6: A General and Broadly Applicable Copper-Based Photoredox Catalyst

Our group recently reported the use of [(DPEPhos)(bcp)Cu]PF6 as a general copper-based photoredox catalyst which proved efficient to promote the activation of a broad variety of organic halides, including unactivated ones. These can then participate in various radical transformations such as reduction and cyclization reactions, as well as in the direct arylation of several (hetero)arenes. These transformations provide a straightforward access to a range of small molecules of interest in synthetic chemistry, as well as to biologically active natural products. Altogether, [(DPEPhos)(bcp)Cu]PF6 acts as a convenient photoredox catalyst which appears to be an attractive, cheap and complementary alternative to the state-of-the-art iridium- and ruthenium-based photoredox catalysts. Here, we report a detailed protocol for the synthesis of [(DPEPhos)(bcp)Cu]PF6, as well as NMR and spectroscopic characterizations, and we illustrate its use in synthetic chemistry for the direct arylation of (hetero)arenes and radical cyclization of organic halides. In particular, the direct arylation of N-methylpyrrole with 4-iodobenzonitrile to afford&#160;4-(1-methyl-1H-pyrrol-2-yl)benzonitrile and the radical cyclization of N-benzoyl-N-[(2-iodoquinolin-3-yl)methyl]cyanamide to afford natural product luotonin A are detailed. The scope and limitations of this copper-based photoredox catalyst are also briefly discussed.

[DPEPhosbcpCu]PF6: A General and Broadly Applicable Copper-Based Photoredox Catalyst

Detailed and general protocols are presented for the synthesis of [(DPEPhos)(bcp)Cu]PF6, a general copper-based photoredox catalyst, and for its use in synthetic chemistry for the direct arylation of C-H bonds in (hetero)arenes and radical cyclization of organic halides.