The authors would like to acknowledge NanoVentures Australia for travel funding support and Prof. John Haycock for having partially hosted this research at the University of Sheffield and Ms. Jaimee Mayne for her help during the filming.

1. Au NRs Preparation
Note: Au NRs can be synthesized by a number of recipes16, or purchased from commercial vendors.
<ol>
	<li>Measure the initial optical density (OD) of the Au NR solution via UV-Vis spectroscopy, by recording the absorption values from 300 nm to 1,000 nm with a resolution of 0.5-2 nm. Vary the volume of the solution to be used with the available cuvette.</li>
	<li>Evaluate the initial NP molar concentration with a suitable technique17 (e.g. ...

<ol>
	<li>Richter, C. P., Matic, A. I., Wells, J. D., Jansen, E. D., Walsh, J. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neural+stimulation+with+optical+radiation.">Neural stimulation with optical radiation.</a> Laser. Photonics Rev. 5 (1), 68-80 (2011).</li><li>Dittami, G. M., Rajguru, S. M., Lasher, R. A., Hitchcock, R. W., Rabbitt, R. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Intracellular+calcium+transients+evoked+by+pulsed+infrared+radiation+in+neonatal+cardiomyocytes.">Intracellular calcium transients evoked by pulsed infrared radiation in neonatal cardiomyocytes.</a> J. Physiol. 589 (6), 1295-1306 (2011).</li><li>Thompson, A. C., Wade, S. A., Brown, W. G. A., Stoddart, P. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Modeling+of+light+absorption+in+tissue+during+infrared+neural+stimulation.">Modeling of light absorption in tissue during infrared neural stimulation.</a> J. Biomed. Opt. 17 (7), 075002-075002 (2012).</li><li>Thompson, A. C., Wade, S. A., Cadusch, P. J., Brown, W. G., Stoddart, P. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Modeling+of+the+temporal+effects+of+heating+during+infrared+neural+stimulation.">Modeling of the temporal effects of heating during infrared neural stimulation.</a> J. Biomed. Opt. 18 (3), 035004 (2013).</li><li>Huang, H., Delikanli, S., Zeng, H., Ferkey, D. M., Pralle, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Remote+control+of+ion+channels+and+neurons+through+magnetic-field+heating+of+nanoparticles.">Remote control of ion channels and neurons through magnetic-field heating of nanoparticles.</a> Nat. Nanotechnol. 5 (8), 602-606 (2010).</li><li>Farah, N., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Holographically+patterned+activation+using+photo-absorber+induced+neural-thermal+stimulation.">Holographically patterned activation using photo-absorber induced neural-thermal stimulation.</a> J. Neural. Eng. 10 (5), (2013).</li><li>Ciofani, G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Enhancement+of+neurite+outgrowth+in+neuronal-like+cells+following+boron+nitride+nanotube-mediated+stimulation.">Enhancement of neurite outgrowth in neuronal-like cells following boron nitride nanotube-mediated stimulation.</a> ACS Nano. 4 (10), 6267-6277 (2010).</li><li>Kim, J. 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Eng. 40 (2), 534-546 (2011).</li><li>Zhan, Q., Qian, J., Li, X., He, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+study+of+mesoporous+silica-encapsulated+gold+nanorods+as+enhanced+light+scattering+probes+for+cancer+cell+imaging.">A study of mesoporous silica-encapsulated gold nanorods as enhanced light scattering probes for cancer cell imaging.</a> Nanotechnology. 21 (5), 055704 (2010).</li><li>Paviolo, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Laser+exposure+of+gold+nanorods+can+increase+neuronal+cell+outgrowth.">Laser exposure of gold nanorods can increase neuronal cell outgrowth.</a> Biotechnol. Bioeng. 110 (8), 2277-2291 (2013).</li><li>Paviolo, C., Haycock, J. W., Cadusch, P. J., McArthur, S. L., Stoddart, P. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Laser+exposure+of+gold+nanorods+can+induce+intracellular+calcium+transients.">Laser exposure of gold nanorods can induce intracellular calcium transients.</a> J. Biophotonics. 7 (10), 761-765 (2014).</li><li>Yong, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gold-nanorod-assisted+near-infrared+stimulation+of+primary+auditory+neurons.">Gold-nanorod-assisted near-infrared stimulation of primary auditory neurons.</a> Adv. Healthcare Mater. , (2014).</li><li>Eom, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Enhanced+infrared+neural+stimulation+using+localized+surface+plasmon+resonance+of+gold+nanorods.">Enhanced infrared neural stimulation using localized surface plasmon resonance of gold nanorods.</a> Small. , (2014).</li><li>Juste, J., Pastoriza-Santos, I., Liz-Marz&#225;n, L. M., Mulvaney, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gold+nanorods:+Synthesis,+characterization+and+applications.">Gold nanorods: Synthesis, characterization and applications.</a> Coordination Chemistry Reviews. 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W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Anatomical+site+influences+the+differentiation+of+adipose-derived+stem+cells+for+schwann-cell+phenotype+and+function.">Anatomical site influences the differentiation of adipose-derived stem cells for schwann-cell phenotype and function.</a> Glia. 59 (5), 734-749 (2011).</li><li>Brown, W. G. A., Needham, K., Nayagam, B. A., Stoddart, P. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Whole+cell+patch+clamp+for+investigating+the+mechanisms+of+infrared+neural+stimulation.">Whole cell patch clamp for investigating the mechanisms of infrared neural stimulation.</a> JoVE. (77), (2013).</li><li>Cadusch, P. J., Hlaing, M. M., Wade, S. A., McArthur, S. L., Stoddart, P. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Improved+methods+for+fluorescence+background+subtraction+from+Raman+spectra.">Improved methods for fluorescence background subtraction from Raman spectra.</a> J. Raman Spectrosc. 44 (11), 1587-1595 (2013).</li><li>Daud, M. F. B., Pawar, K. C., Claeyssens, F., Ryan, A. J., Haycock, J. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+aligned+3D+neuronal-glial+co-culture+model+for+peripheral+nerve+studies.">An aligned 3D neuronal-glial co-culture model for peripheral nerve studies.</a> Biomaterials. 33 (25), 5901-5913 (2012).</li><li>Jung, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Intracellular+gold+nanoparticles+increase+neuronal+excitability+and+aggravate+seizure+activity+in+the+mouse+brain.">Intracellular gold nanoparticles increase neuronal excitability and aggravate seizure activity in the mouse brain.</a> PLoS ONE. 9 (3), e91360 (2014).</li><li>Salinas, K., Kereselidze, Z., DeLuna, F., Peralta, X., Santamaria, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transient+extracellular+application+of+gold+nanostars+increases+hippocampal+neuronal+activity.">Transient extracellular application of gold nanostars increases hippocampal neuronal activity.</a> J. Nanobiotechnology. 12 (1), 31 (2014).</li><li>Ebbesen, C. L., Bruus, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Analysis+of+laser-induced+heating+in+optical+neuronal+guidance.">Analysis of laser-induced heating in optical neuronal guidance.</a> J. Neurosci. Meth. 209 (1), 168-177 (2012).</li><li>Iwanaga, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Location-dependent+photogeneration+of+calcium+waves+in+HeLa+cells.">Location-dependent photogeneration of calcium waves in HeLa cells.</a> Cell Biochem. Biophys. 45 (2), 167-176 (2006).</li><li>Huang, X., Jain, P. K., El-Sayed, I. H., El-Sayed, M. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Determination+of+the+minimum+temperature+required+for+selective+photothermal+destruction+of+cancer+cells+with+the+use+of+immunotargeted+gold+nanoparticles.">Determination of the minimum temperature required for selective photothermal destruction of cancer cells with the use of immunotargeted gold nanoparticles.</a> Photochem. Photobiol. 82 (2), 412-417 (2006).</li><li>Connor, E. E., Mwamuka, J., Gole, A., Murphy, C. J., Wyatt, M. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gold+nanoparticles+are+taken+up+by+human+cells+but+do+not+cause+acute+cytotoxicity.">Gold nanoparticles are taken up by human cells but do not cause acute cytotoxicity.</a> Small. 1 (3), 325-327 (2005).</li><li>Isomaa, B., Reuter, J., Djupsund, B. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+subacute+and+chronic+toxicity+of+cetyltrimethylammonium+bromide+(CTAB),+a+cationic+surfactant,+in+the+rat.">The subacute and chronic toxicity of cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB), a cationic surfactant, in the rat.</a> Arch. Toxicol. 35 (2), 91-96 (1976).</li><li>Juste, J., Pastoriza-Santos, I., Liz-Marz&#225;n, L., Mulvaney, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gold+nanorods:+synthesis,+characterization+and+applications.">Gold nanorods: synthesis, characterization and applications.</a> Coord. Chem. Rev. 249 (17-18), 1870-1901 (2005).</li><li>Dreaden, E. C., Alkilany, A. M., Huang, X., Murphy, C. J., El-Sayed, M. 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S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=TRPV4+channels+mediate+the+infrared+laser-evoked+response+in+sensory+neurons.">TRPV4 channels mediate the infrared laser-evoked response in sensory neurons.</a> J. Neurophysiol. 107 (12), 3227-3234 (2012).</li><li>Garcia-Elias, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Phosphatidylinositol-4,5-biphosphate-dependent+rearrangement+of+TRPV4+cytosolic+tails+enables+channel+activation+by+physiological+stimuli.">Phosphatidylinositol-4,5-biphosphate-dependent rearrangement of TRPV4 cytosolic tails enables channel activation by physiological stimuli.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 110 (23), 9553-9558 (2013).</li><li>Shapiro, M. G., Homma, K., Villarreal, S., Richter, C. -. 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The protocols outlined in this presentation describe how to culture, differentiate and optically stimulate neuronal cells using extrinsic absorbers. The NR characteristics (e.g.&#160;dimensions, shape, plasmon resonance wavelength and surface chemistry) and the laser stimulation parameters (such as wavelength, pulse length, repetition rate, etc.) can be varied to match different experimental needs. The effects on cell behavior can be monitored using standard biological assays and materials. Overall the ...

Recent studies have demonstrated that the transient heating associated with the absorption of infrared light by water (wavelength &#62;1,400 nm) can be used to induce action potentials in nerve tissue1 and intracellular calcium transients in cardiomyocytes2. The use of infrared light has raised great interest for applications in neural prostheses, due to the potential finer spatial resolution, lack of direct contact with the tissue, minimization of stimulation artifacts, and removal of the need to genetically modify the cells prior to stimulation (as required in optogenetics)1. Despite all of these benefits, recently developed thermal models suggested that the target tissue/cells may be affected by cumulative heating effects, when multiple stimulus sites and/or high repetition rates are used3,4.
In response to these challenges, researchers have recognized the potential to use extrinsic absorbers for nerve stimulation to produce more localized heating effects in the tissue. Huang et al. demonstrated this principle by using superparamagnetic ferrite nanoparticles to remotely activate the temperature-sensitive TRPV1 channels in HEK 293 cells with a radio-frequency magnetic field5. Although this technique may allow for deeper penetration (magnetic fields interact relatively weakly with tissue), the responses were only recorded over periods of seconds, rather than the millisecond durations required in bionic devices5. Similarly, Farah et al. demonstrated electrical stimulation of rat cortical neurons with black micro-particles in vitro. They showed cell-level precision in stimulation using pulse durations on the order of hundreds of &#181;s and energies in the range of &#181;J, potentially allowing for faster repetition rates6.
The use of extrinsic absorbers has also been applied to induce morphological changes in vitro. Ciofani et al. showed a ~40% increase in neuronal cell outgrowth using piezoelectric boron nitride nanotubes excited by ultrasound7. Similarly, endocytosed iron oxide nanoparticles in PC12 cells have been reported to enhance neurite differentiation in a dose-dependent manner, due to the activation of cell adhesion molecules with the iron oxide8.
Recently, the interest in extrinsic absorbers to assist neural stimulation has also focused on the use of gold nanoparticles (Au NPs). Au NPs have the ability to efficiently absorb laser light at the plasmonic peak and to dissipate it into the surrounding environment in the form of heat9. Amongst all of the available particle shapes, the optical absorption of gold nanorods (Au NRs) conveniently matches the therapeutic window of biological tissues (near infrared - NIR, wavelength between 750-1,400 nm)10. Moreover, in the context of neural stimulation, the use of Au NRs provides relatively favorable biocompatibility and a wide range of surface functionalization options11. Recent studies have shown that a stimulatory effect on differentiation can be induced after continuous laser exposures of Au NRs in NG108-15 neuronal cells12. Similarly, intracellular calcium transients were recorded in neuronal cells cultured with Au NRs after laser irradiation modulated with variable frequencies and pulse lengths13. Cell membrane depolarization was also recorded after NIR laser illumination of Au NRs in primary cultures of spiral ganglion neurons14. The first in vivo application with irradiated Au NRs has been demonstrated just recently. Eom and coworkers exposed Au NRs at their plasmonic peak and recorded a six-fold increase in the amplitude of compound nerve action potentials (CNAPs) and a three-fold decrease in the stimulation threshold in rat sciatic nerves. The enhanced response was attributed to local heating effects resulting from the excitation of the NR plasmonic peak15.
In the present paper, protocols for investigating the effects of laser stimulation in NG108-15 neuronal cells cultured with Au NRs are specified. These methods provide a simple, yet powerful, way to irradiate cell populations in vitro using standard biological techniques and materials. The protocol is based on a fiber-coupled laser diode (LD) that allows safe operation and repeatable alignment. The Au NR sample preparation and laser irradiation methods can be further extended to different particle shapes and neuronal cell cultures, providing that the specific synthesis and culture protocols are known, respectively.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Au NR</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>716812</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NG108-15</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>8811230</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DMEM</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>D6546</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FCS</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>10100147</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>L-glutamine</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>G7513</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Penicillin/streptomycin</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>15140122</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Amphotericin B</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>15290018</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Formaldehyde</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>F8775</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Triton X-100</td>
			<td>BDH</td>
			<td>T8532</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BSA</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>A2058</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-&#946;III-tubulin</td>
			<td>Promega</td>
			<td>G7121</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TRITC-conjugated anti-mouse IgG antibody</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>T5393</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DAPI</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>D1306</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fluo-4 AM</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>F14201</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DMSO</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>472301</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pluronic F-127</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>P6867</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Equipment name</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalogue Number</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>UV-Vis spectrometer</td>
			<td>Varian Medical Systems Inc.</td>
			<td>Cary 50 Bio</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mini centrifuge</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>Mini Spin</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sonic bath</td>
			<td>Unisonics Australia</td>
			<td>FPX 10D</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cell culture incubator</td>
			<td>Kendro</td>
			<td>Hera Cell 150</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cell culture centrifuge</td>
			<td>Hettich</td>
			<td>Rotofix 32A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Laser diode</td>
			<td>Optotech</td>
			<td>780 nm single mode fibre - coupled LD</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Optical fiber</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>780 HP</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Power meter</td>
			<td>Coherent</td>
			<td>Laser Check</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ImageJ</td>
			<td>http://rsb.info.nih.gov/ij/index.html</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Epifluorescent microscope</td>
			<td>Axon Instruments</td>
			<td>ImageX-press 5000A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&#956;-slide well</td>
			<td>Ibidi</td>
			<td>80826</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Inverted confocal microscope</td>
			<td>Carl Zeiss Microscopy Ltd.</td>
			<td>LSM 510 meta-confocal microscope</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Oscilloscope</td>
			<td>Tektronix</td>
			<td>TDS210</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

gold nanorod-assisted optical stimulation of neuronal cells

Recent studies have demonstrated that nerves can be stimulated in a variety of ways by the transient heating associated with the absorption of infrared light by water in neuronal tissue. This technique holds great potential for replacing or complementing standard stimulation techniques, due to the potential for increased localization of the stimulus and minimization of mechanical contact with the tissue. However, optical approaches are limited by the inability of visible light to penetrate deep into tissues. Moreover, thermal modelling suggests that cumulative heating effects might be potentially hazardous when multiple stimulus sites or high laser repetition rates are used. The protocol outlined below describes an enhanced approach to the infrared stimulation of neuronal cells. The underlying mechanism is based on the transient heating associated with the optical absorption of gold nanorods, which can cause triggering of neuronal cell differentiation and increased levels of intracellular calcium activity. These results demonstrate that nanoparticle absorbers can enhance and/or replace the process of infrared neural stimulation based on water absorption, with potential for future applications in neural prostheses and cell therapies.

By using Protocols 1, 2, and 3 described here, a stimulatory effect on differentiation was observed in NG108-15 neuronal cells cultured with Au NPs (Au NRs, poly(styrenesulfonate)-coated Au NRs and silica-coated Au NRs) after laser exposures between 1.25 and 7.5 W&#183;cm&#8722;2 . Confocal images of rhodamineB-labelled Au NRs demonstrated that the particles were internalized from day 1 of incubation12. The localization was predominantly observed in the cell cytoplasm, indicating that the preferred ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Gold Nanorod-assisted Optical Stimulation of Neuronal Cells at JoVE.com

Gold Nanorod-assisted Optical Stimulation of Neuronal Cells

This protocol outlines how to use the transient heating associated with the optical absorption of gold nanorods to stimulate differentiation and intracellular calcium activity in neuronal cells. These results potentially open up new applications in neural prostheses and fundamental studies in neuroscience.

Recent studies have demonstrated that nerves can be stimulated in a variety of ways by the transient heating associated with the absorption of infrared ...

gold-nanorod-assisted-optical-stimulation-of-neuronal-cells

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

8.9K vues.  Swinburne University of Technology. This protocol outlines how to use the transient heating associated with the optical absorption of gold nanorods to stimulate differentiation and intracellular calcium activity in neuronal cells. These results potentially open up new applications in neural prostheses and fundamental studies in neuroscience.

Vidéo: Gold Nanorod-assisted Optical Stimulation of Neuronal Cells

This protocol outlines how to use the transient heating associated with the optical absorption of gold nanorods to stimulate differentiation and intracellular calcium activity in neuronal cells. These results potentially open up new applications in neural prostheses and fundamental studies in...

stimulating neuronal cell differentiation using gold nanorods

This video demonstrates a technique to promote neuronal differentiation by exposing nerve cells to gold nanorods and laser light, which forms cell projections supported by the &#946;III-tubulin. Staining and observing tubulin and the cell nucleus with epifluorescence microscopy reveals the cell outgrowths, indicating the nanorods&#39; efficacy in neuronal...

Stimulating Neuronal Cell Differentiation Using Gold Nanorods

photodeposition of pd onto colloidal au nanorods by surface plasmon excitation

Photodeposition of Pd onto Colloidal Au Nanorods by Surface Plasmon Excitation

A protocol for anisotropic photodeposition of Pd onto aqueously-suspended Au nanorods via localized surface plasmon excitation is...

construction and operation of a light-driven gold nanorod rotary motor system

Construction and Operation of a Light-driven Gold Nanorod Rotary Motor System

Plasmonic gold nanorods can be trapped in liquids and rotated at kHz frequencies using circularly-polarized optical tweezers. Introducing tools for Brownian dynamics analysis and light scatteringspectroscopy leads to a powerful system for research and application in numerous fields of...

After that, mechanically detach the cells by gently knocking the bottom of the confluent flask. Centrifuge a cell suspension for five minutes at 600 g and resuspend the cell pellet in 2 milliliters of warm cell differentiation medium. Then, seed the cells in a 96-well plate, with 200 microliters of cell differentiation...

simultaneous optical and electrophysiological monitoring of neuronal cells in brain slices

This video outlines a method for simultaneously imaging and recording electrical activity from transgenic brain slices that contain neuron-specific fluorescent proteins. The procedure involves maintaining the brain slice in a perfusion chamber with aerated artificial cerebrospinal fluid, using a light source to excite fluorescent-labeled cells, and recording the electrical signals with a multichannel probe and patch...

Simultaneous Optical and Electrophysiological Monitoring of Neuronal Cells in Brain Slices

Under broad-field illumination and fine control of the micromanipulator, lower the multichannel probe toward the surface of the slice. Engage the appropriate filter cube for visualization of the fluorescent reporter protein expressed in axon terminals of cortical...

stimulation of patterned neuronal cultures by a magnetic field

This video demonstrates a method for stimulating neuronal cultures grown in a patterned circular ring on a coverslip, using a time-varying magnetic...

Stimulation of Patterned Neuronal Cultures by a Magnetic Field

automated multimodal stimulation and simultaneous neuronal recording from multiple small organisms

Automated Multimodal Stimulation and Simultaneous Neuronal Recording from Multiple Small Organisms

We present a method for the flexible chemical and multimodal stimulation and recording of simultaneous neural activity from many Caenorhabditis elegans worms. This method uses microfluidics, open-source hardware and software, and supervised automated data analysis to enable the measurement of neuronal phenomena such as adaptation, temporal inhibition, and stimulus...

preparation of zno nanorod/graphene/zno nanorod epitaxial double heterostructure for piezoelectrical nanogenerator by using preheating hydrothermal

Preparation of ZnO Nanorod/Graphene/ZnO Nanorod Epitaxial Double Heterostructure for Piezoelectrical Nanogenerator by Using Preheating Hydrothermal

One-step fabrication method for obtaining freestanding epitaxial double heterostructure is presented. This approach could achieve ZnO coverage with a higher number density than that of the epitaxial single heterostructure, leading to a piezoelectric nanogenerator with an increased output electrical...

silicon nanowires and optical stimulation for investigations of intra- and intercellular electrical coupling

Silicon Nanowires and Optical Stimulation for Investigations of Intra- and Intercellular Electrical Coupling

This protocol describes the use of silicon nanowires for intracellular optical bio-modulation of cell in a simple and easy to perform method. The technique is highly adaptable to diverse cell types and can be used for in vitro as well as in vivo...

optical control of a neuronal protein using a genetically encoded unnatural amino acid in neurons

Optical Control of a Neuronal Protein Using a Genetically Encoded Unnatural Amino Acid in Neurons

Here, a procedure to selectively activate a neuronal protein with a short pulse of light by genetically encoding a photo-reactive unnatural amino acid into a target neuronal protein expressed in neurons in culture or in vivo is...

To stimulate the cultures with non-standard magnetic field intensities, connect a custom-made magnetic stimulation coil to the custom-built stimulator. Then, with an aid of a laser pointer, align the center of the culture to the center of the coil to ensure successful...

magnetofection-based transfection in vitro: a magnetic field-assisted technique to deliver plasmids into primary mouse neuronal cells using magnetic nanoparticles

In this video, we demonstrate magnetically-guided transfection of plasmid DNA in primary neuronal cell culture. Magnetofection uses an external magnetic field to guide the delivery of plasmids bound to magnetic nanoparticles into cell...

Magnetofection-Based Transfection In Vitro: A Magnetic Field-Assisted Technique to Deliver Plasmids Into Primary Mouse Neuronal Cells Using Magnetic Nanoparticles

optical recording of neuronal activity in brain slices stained with a voltage-sensitive dye

This video demonstrates a procedure for observing changes in neuronal activity in a brain slice stained with a voltage-sensitive dye. The dye reflects changes in the neuron&#39;s membrane potential by altering its fluorescence intensity. Through the application of electrical stimuli and advanced imaging techniques, this process enables visual tracking of real-time changes in neuronal membrane potential based on VSD...

Optical Recording of Neuronal Activity in Brain Slices Stained with a Voltage-Sensitive Dye

optical control of living cells electrical activity by conjugated polymers

Optical Control of Living Cells Electrical Activity by Conjugated Polymers

A method for stimulation of in-vitro cell cultures electrical activity with visible light, based on the use of organic semiconducting polymers is...

hydroquinone based synthesis of gold nanorods

Hydroquinone Based Synthesis of Gold Nanorods

This paper describes a protocol for the synthesis of gold nanorods, based on the use of hydroquinone as reducing agent, plus the different mechanisms for controlling their size and aspect...

well-aligned vertically oriented zno nanorod arrays and their application in inverted small molecule solar cells

Well-aligned Vertically Oriented ZnO Nanorod Arrays and their Application in Inverted Small Molecule Solar Cells

This manuscript describes how to design and fabricate efficient inverted SMPV1:PC71BM solar cells with ZnO nanorods (NRs) grown on a high quality Al-doped ZnO (AZO) seed layer. The well-aligned vertically oriented ZnO NRs exhibit high crystalline properties. The power conversion efficiency of solar cells can reach...

targeting neuronal fiber tracts for deep brain stimulation therapy using interactive, patient-specific models

Targeting Neuronal Fiber Tracts for Deep Brain Stimulation Therapy Using Interactive, Patient-Specific Models

The goal of this project is to develop an interactive, patient-specific modeling pipeline to simulate the effects of deep brain stimulation in near real-time and provide meaningful feedback as to how these devices influence neural activity in the...

Combining Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation and fMRI to Examine the Default Mode Network

The default mode network is a group of brain regions that are active when an individual is not focused on the outside world and the brain is at "wakeful rest."1,2,3 It is thought the default mode network corresponds to self-referential or "internal mentation".2,3
It has been hypothesized that, in humans, activity within the default mode network is correlated with certain pathologies (for instance, hyper-activation has been linked to schizophrenia 4,5,6 and autism spectrum disorders 7 whilst hypo-activation of the network has been linked to Alzheimer's and other neurodegenerative diseases 8). As such, noninvasive modulation of this network may represent a potential therapeutic intervention for a number of neurological and psychiatric pathologies linked to abnormal network activation. One possible tool to effect this modulation is Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation: a non-invasive neurostimulatory and neuromodulatory technique that can transiently or lastingly modulate cortical excitability (either increasing or decreasing it) via the application of localized magnetic field pulses.9
In order to explore the default mode network's propensity towards and tolerance of modulation, we will be combining TMS (to the left inferior parietal lobe) with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Through this article, we will examine the protocol and considerations necessary to successfully combine these two neuroscientific tools.

In this article, we examine the methodology and considerations relevant to the combination of TMS and fMRI to examine the effects of brain stimulation on the default network.

The default mode network is a group of brain regions that are active when an individual is not focused on the outside world and the brain is at "wakeful ...

TMS: Using the Theta-Burst Protocol to Explore Mechanism of Plasticity in Individuals with Fragile X Syndrome and Autism

Fragile X Syndrome (FXS), also known as Martin-Bell Syndrome, is a genetic abnormality found on the X chromosome.1,2 Individuals suffering from FXS display abnormalities in the expression of FMR1 - a protein required for typical, healthy neural development.3 Recent data has suggested that the loss of this protein can cause the cortex to be hyperexcitable thereby affecting overall patterns of neural plasticity.4,5
In addition, Fragile X shows a strong comorbidity with autism: in fact, 30% of children with FXS are diagnosed with autism, and 2 - 5% of autistic children suffer from FXS.6
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (a non-invasive neurostimulatory and neuromodulatory technique that can transiently or lastingly modulate cortical excitability via the application of localized magnetic field pulses 7,8) represents a unique method of exploring plasticity and the manifestations of FXS within affected individuals. More specifically, Theta-Burst Stimulation (TBS), a specific stimulatory protocol shown to modulate cortical plasticity for a duration up to 30 minutes after stimulation cessation in healthy populations, has already proven an efficacious tool in the exploration of abnormal plasticity.9,10 
Recent studies have shown the effects of TBS last considerably longer in individuals on the autistic spectrum - up to 90 minutes.11 This extended effect-duration suggests an underlying abnormality in the brain's natural plasticity state in autistic individuals - similar to the hyperexcitability induced by Fragile X Syndrome.
In this experiment, utilizing single-pulse motor-evoked potentials (MEPs) as our benchmark, we will explore the effects of both intermittent and continuous TBS on cortical plasticity in individuals suffering from FXS and individuals on the Autistic Spectrum.

In this article, we examine the effects of Theta-Burst TMS stimulation on cortical plasticity in individuals suffering from Fragile X syndrome and individuals on the autistic spectrum.

Fragile X Syndrome (FXS), also known as Martin-Bell Syndrome, is a genetic abnormality found on the X chromosome.1,2 Individuals suffering from FXS ...

The NeuroStar TMS Device: Conducting the FDA Approved Protocol for Treatment of Depression

The Neuronetics NeuroStar Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) System is a class II medical device that produces brief duration, pulsed magnetic fields. These rapidly alternating fields induce electrical currents within localized, targeted regions of the cortex which are associated with various physiological and functional brain changes.1,2,3
In 2007, O'Reardon et al., utilizing the NeuroStar device, published the results of an industry-sponsored, multisite, randomized, sham-stimulation controlled clinical trial in which 301 patients with major depression, who had previously failed to respond to at least one adequate antidepressant treatment trial, underwent either active or sham TMS over the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). The patients, who were medication-free at the time of the study, received TMS five times per week over 4-6 weeks.4
The results demonstrated that a sub-population of patients (those who were relatively less resistant to medication, having failed not more than two good pharmacologic trials) showed a statistically significant improvement on the Montgomery-Asberg Depression Scale (MADRS), the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HAMD), and various other outcome measures. In October 2008, supported by these and other similar results5,6,7, Neuronetics obtained the first and only Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval for the clinical treatment of a specific form of medication-refractory depression using a TMS Therapy device (FDA approval K061053).
In this paper, we will explore the specified FDA approved NeuroStar depression treatment protocol (to be administered only under prescription and by a licensed medical profession in either an in- or outpatient setting).

In this article, we examine the methodology and considerations relevant to the FDA approved depression treatment protocol using the Neuronetics NeuroStar TMS device.

The Neuronetics NeuroStar Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) System is a class II medical device that produces brief duration, pulsed magnetic ...

Live-cell Imaging of Sensory Organ Precursor Cells in Intact Drosophila Pupae

Since the discovery of Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP), there has been a revolutionary change in the use of live-cell imaging as a tool for understanding fundamental biological mechanisms. Striking progress has been particularly evident in Drosophila, whose extensive toolkit of mutants and transgenic lines provides a convenient model to study evolutionarily-conserved developmental and cell biological mechanisms. We are interested in understanding the mechanisms that control cell fate specification in the adult peripheral nervous system (PNS) in Drosophila. Bristles that cover the head, thorax, abdomen, legs and wings of the adult fly are individual mechanosensory organs, and have been studied as a model system for understanding mechanisms of Notch-dependent cell fate decisions. Sensory organ precursor (SOP) cells of the microchaetes (or small bristles), are distributed throughout the epithelium of the pupal thorax, and are specified during the first 12 hours after the onset of pupariation. After specification, the SOP cells begin to divide, segregating the cell fate determinant Numb to one daughter cell during mitosis. Numb functions as a cell-autonomous inhibitor of the Notch signaling pathway.
Here, we show a method to follow protein dynamics in SOP cell and its progeny within the intact pupal thorax using a combination of tissue-specific Gal4 drivers and GFP-tagged fusion proteins 1,2.This technique has the advantage over fixed tissue or cultured explants because it allows us to follow the entire development of an organ from specification of the neural precursor to growth and terminal differentiation of the organ. We can therefore directly correlate changes in cell behavior to changes in terminal differentiation. Moreover, we can combine the live imaging technique with mosaic analysis with a repressible cell marker (MARCM) system to assess the dynamics of tagged proteins in mitotic SOPs under mutant or wildtype conditions. Using this technique, we and others have revealed novel insights into regulation of asymmetric cell division and the control of Notch signaling activation in SOP cells (examples include references 1-6,7 ,8).

Live-cell Imaging of Sensory Organ Precursor Cells in Intact Drosophila Pupae

In this video, we describe a method for live cell imaging of asymmetrically dividing sensory organ progenitor cells and epidermal cells in intact Drosophila pupae

Since the discovery of Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP), there has been a revolutionary change in the use of live-cell imaging as a tool for understanding ...

Fast Micro-iontophoresis of Glutamate and GABA: A Useful Tool to Investigate Synaptic Integration

One of the fundamental interests in neuroscience is to understand the integration of excitatory and inhibitory inputs along the very complex structure of the dendritic tree, which eventually leads to neuronal output of action potentials at the axon. The influence of diverse spatial and temporal parameters of specific synaptic input on neuronal output is currently under investigation, e.g. the distance-dependent attenuation of dendritic inputs, the location-dependent interaction of spatially segregated inputs, the influence of GABAergig inhibition on excitatory integration, linear and non-linear integration modes, and many more.
With fast micro-iontophoresis of glutamate and GABA it is possible to precisely investigate the spatial and temporal integration of glutamatergic excitation and GABAergic inhibition. Critical technical requirements are either a triggered fluorescent lamp, light-emitting diode (LED), or a two-photon scanning microscope to visualize dendritic branches without introducing significant photo-damage of the tissue. Furthermore, it is very important to have a micro-iontophoresis amplifier that allows for fast capacitance compensation of high resistance pipettes. Another crucial point is that no transmitter is involuntarily released by the pipette during the experiment.
Once established, this technique will give reliable and reproducible signals with a high neurotransmitter and location specificity. Compared to glutamate and GABA uncaging, fast iontophoresis allows using both transmitters at the same time but at very distant locations without limitation to the field of view. There are also advantages compared to focal electrical stimulation of axons: with micro-iontophoresis the location of the input site is definitely known and it is sure that only the neurotransmitter of interest is released. However it has to be considered that with micro-iontophoresis only the postsynapse is activated and presynaptic aspects of neurotransmitter release are not resolved. In this article we demonstrate how to set up micro-iontophoresis in brain slice experiments.

In this article we introduce fast micro-iontophoresis of neurotransmitters as a technique to investigate integration of postsynaptic signals with high spatial and temporal precision.

One of the fundamental interests in neuroscience is to understand the integration of excitatory and inhibitory inputs along the very complex structure of ...

Photostimulation is a noninvasive way to control biological events with excellent spatial and temporal resolution. New methods are desired to photo-regulate endogenous proteins expressed in their native environment. Here, we present an approach to optically control the function of a neuronal protein directly in neurons using a genetically encoded unnatural amino acid (Uaa). By using an orthogonal tRNA/aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase pair to suppress the amber codon, a photo-reactive Uaa 4,5-dimethoxy-2-nitrobenzyl-cysteine (Cmn) is site-specifically incorporated in the pore of a neuronal protein Kir2.1, an inwardly rectifying potassium channel. The bulky Cmn physically blocks the channel pore, rendering Kir2.1 non-conducting. Light illumination instantaneously converts Cmn into a smaller natural amino acid Cys, activating Kir2.1 channel function. We express these photo-inducible inwardly rectifying potassium (PIRK) channels in rat hippocampal primary neurons, and demonstrate that light-activation of PIRK ceases the neuronal firing due to the outflux of K+ current through the activated Kir2.1 channels. Using in utero electroporation, we also express PIRK in the embryonic mouse neocortex in vivo, showing the light-activation of PIRK in neocortical neurons. Genetically encoding Uaa imposes no restrictions on target protein type or cellular location, and a family of photoreactive Uaas is available for modulating different natural amino acid residues. This technique thus has the potential to be generally applied to many neuronal proteins to achieve optical regulation of different processes in brains. The current protocol presents an accessible procedure for intricate Uaa incorporation in neurons in vitro and in vivo to achieve photo control of neuronal protein activity on the molecular level.

Here, a procedure to selectively activate a neuronal protein with a short pulse of light by genetically encoding a photo-reactive unnatural amino acid into a target neuronal protein expressed in neurons in culture or in vivo is presented.

Photostimulation is a noninvasive way to control biological events with excellent spatial and temporal resolution. New methods are desired to ...

Time-dependent Increase in the Network Response to the Stimulation of Neuronal Cell Cultures on Micro-electrode Arrays

Micro-electrode arrays (MEAs) can be used to investigate drug toxicity, design paradigms for next-generation personalized medicine, and study network dynamics in neuronal cultures. In contrast with more traditional methods, such as patch-clamping, which can only record activity from a single cell, MEAs can record simultaneously from multiple sites in a network, without requiring the arduous task of placing each electrode individually. Moreover, numerous control and stimulation configurations can be easily applied within the same experimental setup, allowing for a broad range of dynamics to be explored. One of the key dynamics of interest in these in vitro studies has been the extent to which cultured networks display properties indicative of learning. Mouse neuronal cells cultured on MEAs display an increase in response following training induced by electrical stimulation. This protocol demonstrates how to culture neuronal cells on MEAs; successfully record from over 95% of the plated dishes; establish a protocol to train the networks to respond to patterns of stimulation; and sort, plot, and interpret the results from such experiments. The use of a proprietary system for stimulating and recording neuronal cultures is demonstrated. Software packages are also used to sort neuronal units. A custom-designed graphical user interface is used to visualize post-stimulus time histograms, inter-burst intervals, and burst duration, as well as to compare the cellular response to stimulation before and after a training protocol. Finally, representative results and future directions of this research effort are discussed.

Mouse neuronal cells cultured on multi-electrode arrays display an increase in response following electrical stimulation. This protocol demonstrates how to culture neurons, how to record activity, and how to establish a protocol to train the networks to respond to patterns of stimulation.

Micro-electrode arrays (MEAs) can be used to investigate drug toxicity, design paradigms for next-generation personalized medicine, and study network ...

Optical Coherence Tomography: Imaging Mouse Retinal Ganglion Cells In Vivo

Structural changes in the retina are common manifestations of ophthalmic diseases. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) enables their identification in vivo&#8212;rapidly, repetitively, and at a high resolution. This protocol describes OCT imaging in the mouse retina as a powerful tool to study optic neuropathies (OPN). The OCT system is an interferometry-based, non-invasive alternative to common post mortem histological assays. It provides a fast and accurate assessment of retinal thickness, allowing the possibility to track changes, such as retinal thinning or thickening. We present the imaging process and analysis with the example of the Opa1delTTAG mouse line. Three types of scans are proposed, with two quantification methods: standard and homemade calipers. The latter is best for use on the peripapillary retina during radial scans; being more precise, is preferable for analyzing thinner structures. All approaches described here are designed for retinal ganglion cells (RGC) but are easily adaptable to other cell populations. In conclusion, OCT is efficient in mouse model phenotyping and has the potential to be used for the reliable evaluation of therapeutic interventions.

Optical Coherence Tomography: Imaging Mouse Retinal Ganglion Cells In Vivo

This manuscript describes a protocol for the in vivo imaging of the mouse retina with high-resolution spectral domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT). It focuses on retinal ganglion cells (RGC) in the peripapillary region, with several scanning and quantifying approaches described.

Structural changes in the retina are common manifestations of ophthalmic diseases. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) enables their identification in ...

Chronic Transcranial Electrical Stimulation and Intracortical Recording in Rats

Transcranial electrical stimulation (TES) is a powerful and relatively simple approach to diffusely influence brain activity either randomly or in a closed-loop event-triggered manner. Although many studies are focusing on the possible benefits and side-effects of TES in healthy and pathologic brains, there are still many fundamental open questions regarding the mechanism of action of the stimulation. Therefore, there is a clear need for a robust and reproducible method to test the acute and the chronic effects of TES in rodents. TES can be combined with regular behavioral, electrophysiological, and imaging techniques to investigate neuronal networks in vivo. The implantation of transcranial stimulation electrodes does not impose extra constraints on the experimental design while it offers a versatile, flexible tool to manipulate brain activity. Here we provide a detailed, step-by-step protocol to fabricate and implant transcranial stimulation electrodes to influence brain activity in a temporally constrained manner for months.

This detailed protocol describes transcranial stimulation electrode placement on the temporal bone in order to investigate the short- and long-term effects of transcranial electrical stimulation in freely moving rats.

Transcranial electrical stimulation (TES) is a powerful and relatively simple approach to diffusely influence brain activity either randomly or in a ...

Neuronal Differentiation from Mouse Embryonic Stem Cells In vitro

The neural differentiation of mouse embryonic stem cells (mESCs) is a potential tool for elucidating the key mechanisms involved in neurogenesis and potentially aid in regenerative medicine. Here, we established an efficient and low cost method for neuronal differentiation from mESCs in vitro, using the strategy of combinatorial screening. Under the conditions defined here, the 2-day embryoid body formation + 6-day retinoic acid induction protocol permits fast and efficient differentiation from mESCs into neural precursor cells (NPCs), as seen by the formation of well-stacked and neurite-like A2lox and 129 derivatives that are Nestin positive. The healthy state of embryoid bodies and the timepoint at which retinoic acid (RA) is applied, as well as the RA concentrations, are critical in the process. In the subsequent differentiation from NPCs into neurons, N2B27 medium II (supplemented by Neurobasal medium) could better support the long term maintenance and maturation of neuronal cells. The presented method is highly efficiency, low cost and easy to operate, and can be a powerful tool for neurobiology and developmental biology research.

Here, we established a low cost and easy to operate method that directs fast and efficient differentiation from embryonic stem cells into neurons. This method is suitable for popularization among laboratories and can be a useful tool for neurological research.

The neural differentiation of mouse embryonic stem cells (mESCs) is a potential tool for elucidating the key mechanisms involved in neurogenesis and ...