This research was funded by Doris Duke Charitable Foundation, Burroughs Wellcome Fund, NIH R21DK080994, Duke Chancellor's pilot project fund, the Roche Foundation for Anemia Research and The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. G.L. is supported by Duke's UPGG and the NIH (Grant # 5R01AI090141-03) and K.A.W. by the NSF Graduate Research Fellowship Program.

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The authors have no competing financial interests to declare.

HBS הוא אחד גרסאות המוגלובין הנפוצות ביותר באזורים אנדמיים למלריה, במידה רבה משום שהוא מספק הגנה מפני מלריה חמורה שנגרמה על ידי פ &#39; falciparum. הטכניקות דרושות כדי לאפיין את התפקיד של microRNA האנושי בויסות הגנים של פ falciparum מפורטים בכל כתב היד הזה. על ידי מיצוי RNA הכו?...

מלריה, הנגרמת על ידי טפילי apicomplexan של הסוג Plasmodium, היא המחלה טפילית האנושית הנפוצה ביותר, בעולם מדביק כ -200 מיליון אנשים בכל שנה וגורם למותם סביב 600,000 1. של חמישה מיני Plasmodium שלהדביק בני אדם, הרלוונטי ביותר למחלות של בני אדם הוא פ falciparum ופ vivax, בשל ההפצות שלהם נרחבות ופוטנציאל לסיבוכי מלריה חמורים. מחזור החיים של טפיל המלריה דורש זיהום של שני יתושים ובני אדם. כאשר יתוש נגוע נושך אדם, הטפילים לנסוע דרך מחזור הדם אל הכבד, שבו עגול של שכפול ראשוני מתרחש. לאחר merozoites קרע מhepatocyte המארח, הם להדביק תאי דם אדומים סמוכים, ייזום שכפול או מיני או מיני. השלב מיני של שכפול, שנמשך 48 שעות בפ falciparum, הוא המוקד של מחקר זה מאחר שהוא גם המקור של רוב malסימפטומים ואריה הוא סכמו בקלות במבחנה. בעוד מספר יוזמות בריאות ציבור, לרבות טיפולים נגד מלריה השתפרו, יש מעט הפחית את הנטל של המלריה בעולם, את הופעתה המתמשכת של טפילים עמידים סמים מהווה בעיה עבור מאמצי שליטת מלריה. תחום אחד שיכול להציע גישות טיפוליות חדשות הוא המחקר על איך שונים וריאנטים גנטיים להקנות עמידות למלריה. באזורים נגועים מלריה, מגוון רחב של פולימורפיזם האריתרוציטים הם די נפוץ 2,3. מוטציות אלה, עם חרמשית להיות אולי הבולטים ביותר, הקשורים לעתים קרובות עם התנגדות משמעותית להתפרצות של זיהום המלריה סימפטומטי 4. המנגנונים שבאמצעותם הם גורמים אריתרוציטים להתנגד זיהום מלריה הם הבינו באופן חלקי. אריתרוציטים parasitized עם מוטציות המוגלובין כפופים להרס עצמי משופר באמצעות קשיחות משופרת סלולרית והתייבשות, שמזוהה עם פלישת ירד ב פ falciparum 5. אלל HBC משפיע גם על ביטוי חלבון על פני השטח כדורית אדומה ועם שיפוץ של שלד התא, עיכוב התפתחות טפילה 6,7 נוסף. לבסוף, פ falciparum גדל היטב במגל הומוזיגוטים (HBSS) אריתרוציטים 8,9 במבחנה, המצביעים על גורמי האריתרוציטים פנימיים של התנגדות מלריה. עם זאת, בעוד שכל מנגנונים אלה מופיעים לתפקיד, הם לא מסבירים באופן מלא את המנגנונים מאחורי התנגדות חרמשית למלריה. סט פוטנציאלי אחד גורמי האריתרוציטים שיישארו הבין היטב הוא המאגר הגדול של הווה מירנה בתוך אריתרוציטים בוגרים. מיקרו RNA הוא RNA קטן קידוד-עישון, 19-25 NT בגודל, אשר מתווך תרגום ו / או יציבות של mRNAs היעד על ידי זיווג בסיס ב&#39;UTR 3. הם היו מעורבים בשליטה של ​​תגובות חיסוניים של יונקים, כוללים הדיכוי oו וירוס שכפול 10, והוצגו להקנות עמידות לוירוסים בצמחים הם גם הוכחו להסדיר כמה תהליכי האריתרוציטים, כוללים כדוריות דם אדום 11,12 וחילוף חומרי ברזל 13. מחקרים קודמים זיהו אוכלוסייה עשירה ומגוונת של miRNAs האריתרוציטים, ביטוי שהיה שינה באופן דרמטי בHBSS אריתרוציטים 14,15. מאז אריתרוציטים בוגרים חסרי שעתוק ותרגום פעילים, התפקיד הפונקציונלי של miRNAs כדורית אדומה אלה עדיין לא ברור. כתמורה חומרית משמעותית מתרחשת בין התא המארח ופ falciparum במהלך המחזור ההתפתחותי intraerythrocytic (IDC) 16, שהעריך כי פרופיל מירנה שינה בתוך אריתרוציטים HBS עשוי תורם ישירות להתנגדות מלריה תא פנימי. מחקרים אלה הובילו בסופו לפיתוח של צינור לבודד, לזהות ותפקודי ללמוד את התפקיד של מירנה אדם בתוך מ &#39;טפיל alaria, פ falciparum, אשר ציין כי miRNAs אדם המארח / אלה סופו של דבר קוולנטית נתיך ולאחר מכן translationally להדחיק תעתיקי mRNA טפיל 17. זה סיפק דוגמא של התמלילים הראשונים בין מיני chimeric נוצרו על ידי טרנס שחבור ומפליל שהיתוך מירנה-mRNA זה יכול להיות מתרחש במינים אחרים, כוללים טפילים אחרים. כל mRNAs trypanosome הם עם אחוי-מנהיג (SL)-שחבור טרנס להסדיר את ההפרדה של תמלילי polycistronic 18. מאז פ falciparum חסר orthologs לדייסר / לפני 19,20, זה אפשרי, כי miRNAs כדורית אדומה לחטוף מכונות SL דומות בפ falciparum להשתלב גני המטרה. מחקרים שנעשה לאחרונה בפ falciparum יש למעשה הצביע על הנוכחות של 5 רצפים &#39;מנהיג אחוי 21. מחקר זה מפרט את השיטות שהובילו לגילוי של תמלילי היתוך אנושי-טפיל מירנה-mRNA, כולל שני transcriptomic ותרגומיםטכניקות רגולציה tional. המטרות הכללית של שיטות אלה הן לחקור את ההשפעות של RNA הקטן בפוטנציאל ויסות הגנים, פנוטיפים ותרגום של פ תמלילי falciparum. זיהוי הראשוני של תמלילי chimeric אדם טפיל לסמוך על שימוש בטכניקות ניתוח RNA, כמו בזמן אמת PCR, רצף transcriptome ולכידת ספריית EST, שכלל שני RNAs כולל וקטן, ולא תוך שימוש בטכניקות שרק מבודדת RNA קטן. בידוד כל RNA יחד בבריכה אחת גדולה, ולא בנפרד, אפשר זיהוי של שני RNA הקטן אדם translocated בטפיל, כמו גם נוכחות של רצפי RNA הקטנים אלה כחלק מרצף גדול יותר. אז זה נדרש ניתוח של מצב התרגום של mRNAs ההיתוך אלה כדי לקבוע את ההשלכות התפקודיות של שילובים אלה. בעוד מאמצים רבים באפיון הגנום של הטפילtranscriptome ד הוסיפה להבנת הביולוגיה של הטפיל 22-25, הרבה פחות ידוע על תקנת translational של transcriptome mRNA על פני מחזור החיים של פ falciparum 26. הבנה מוגבלת זו של proteome של הטפיל הפריעה שתי הבנה של הביולוגיה של הטפיל ואת היכולת לזהות מטרות חדשות עבור הדור הבא של תרופות נגד מלריה. פער בהבנה של הביולוגיה התאית של הטפיל זה נמשך במידה רבה בשל חוסר טכניקות נאותות לחקור רגולציה translational בפ falciparum. נייר האחרון אחד תאר את השימוש בfootprinting ריבוזומלי של פ falciparum כדי לקבוע את מצב התרגום העולמי 21. אחת מדידה מבוססת היטב של פוטנציאל translational של תמלילים היא מספר הריבוזומים קשורים נקבעים על ידי polysome פרופיל. עם זאת, כאשר טכניקה זו מיושמת לפ falciparum &lt;/ Em&gt;, זה לא יכול לשחזר את רוב polysomes ולוכד בעיקר monosomes. לאחרונה, מספר קבוצות 27,28 אופטימיזציה פ טכניקות polysome falciparum ידי lysing כדורית אדומה וטפיל בו זמנית לשמור על polysomes ולאפיין את תפוסת ריבוזומלי ופוטנציאל translational של טפילי מלריה אלה במהלך ההתפתחות מינית שלהם בתאים אדומים מארח 28. באופן קולקטיבי, שיטות אלה להוכיח כי ההיתוך הנצפה של mRNAs מירנה והטפיל האנושי מודולציה תרגום חלבון טפיל של mRNAs ההיתוך אלה, שהודגם בשיטות שדווחו בעבר 27, והוא הקובע עיקרי של התנגדות מלריה בHBAs וHBSS אריתרוציטים 17. שיטות אלה יהיו שימושיות בכל מערכת מחפשת לזהות ופונקציונלי לחקור אירועי שחבור רנ&quot;א, אם RNAs ההיתוך אלה נמצאים בפ falciparum או מערכות אחרות אוקריוטים.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="651">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="28">
			<td height="28" style="height:28px;width:651px;">REAGENTS-All reagents must be RNAse-free.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Diethyl pyrocarbonate (DEPC; Sigma, cat. no. D5758)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">DEPC-treated water (see REAGENT SETUP)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Yoyo-1 DNA fluorescent dye (Thermo Fisher)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Gene Pulser II (or comparible) electroporator (Bio-Rad)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">0.2 cm Electroporation cuvettes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">4 M potassium acetate (Mallinckrodt, cat. no. 6700)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">2 M potassium HEPES (pH 7.2; Sigma, cat. no. H0527)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">1 M magnesium acetate (Sigma, cat. no. M-2545)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">1 M dithiothreitol (DTT; Research Products International, cat. no. D11000)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">100 mM phenylmethylsulfonate fluoride (PMSF; dissolved in isopropanol; Sigma, cat. no. P7626)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">10% (v/v) Igepal CA-630 (Sigma-Aldrich, cat. no. I3021)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">10% (w/v) sodium deoxycholate (DOC; Sigma, cat. no. D-6750)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Cycloheximide (CHX; Sigma, cat. no. C-7698)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Sucrose (Mallinckrodt, cat. no. 8360-04)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">RNAseOUT (Invitrogen, cat. no. 100000840)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">RPMI-1640 w/ L-glutamine (Cellgro, cat. no. 10-040-CV)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">10% AlbuMAX I (w/v in sterile water) (Invitrogen, cat. no. 11020-039)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Gentamicin (Gibco, cat. no. 15750-060))</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">HT supplement (100x) (Invitrogen, cat. no. 11067030)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">45% (w/v) sucrose (Sigma, cat no. G8769)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">1 M HEPES buffer (Gibco, cat. no. 15630-080)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">1x phosphate buffered saline (PBS; Cellgro, cat. no. 2109310CV)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Corning 500 ml vacuum filter flask (VWR, cat. no. 430769)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Glass slides (VWR, cat. no. 48311-702)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Giemsa stain (50X) (VWR, cat no. m708-01)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">mirVana miRNA isolation kit (Ambion, ThermoFisher Scientific).</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">5&#39; Biotin conjugated mature miRNA (sequence varies by miRNA of interest) (Dharmacon)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Biotin powder (Sigma-Aldrich)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">1M Potassium Chloride</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Streptavidin Sepharose High Performance Beads (GE Healthcare)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Ribosome resuspension buffer (see REAGENT SETUP)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Lysis buffer (see REAGENT SETUP)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">15% (w/v) sucrose gradient solution (see REAGENT SETUP)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">50% (w/v) sucrose gradient solution (see REAGENT SETUP)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">0.5 M sucrose cushion (see REAGENT SETUP)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">60% (w/v) sucrose chase solution (see REAGENT SETUP)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Plasmodium cell culture media (see REAGENT SETUP)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">RNA capture Wash Buffer (see REAGENT SETUP)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">RNA Elution Buffer (see REAGENT SETUP)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="28">
			<td height="28" style="height:28px;">REAGENT SETUP</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Solutions</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Plasmodium cell culture media</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">500 ml RPMI-1640 w/ L-glutamine</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">0.5 ml gentamicin</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">5 ml HT supplement</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">2.5 ml 45% glucose</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">25 ml 10% AlbuMAX I</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">12.5 ml 1 M HEPES</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Sterile filter with 0.2 mm vacuum filter flask.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Plasmodium cell culture media containing 10x CHX</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Same recipe as Plasmodium cell culture media above, with the addition of:</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">2 mM cycloheximide</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Media is prepared as normal, then add CHX to a final concentration of 2 mM and filter.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">1x PBS containing cycloheximide</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="23">
			<td height="23" style="height:23px;">Cycloheximide is added fresh to 1x PBS to a final concentration of 200 mM, and kept at 4 OC until use.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Ribosome resuspension buffer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">400 mM potassium acetate</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">25 mM potassium HEPES, pH 7.2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">15 mM magnesium acetate</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">200 mM cycloheximide (add fresh)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">1 mM DTT (add fresh)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">1 mM PMSF (add fresh)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">40 U/ml RNaseOUT (add fresh)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Lysis buffer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Same recipe as ribosome resuspension buffer above, with the addition of:</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">1% (v/v) Igepal CA-630</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">0.5% (w/v) DOC</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Sucrose solutions</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Same recipe as ribosome resuspension buffer above, with the addition of varying amounts of sucrose:</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">15% (w/v) sucrose to make 15% sucrose gradient solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">50% (w/v) sucrose to make 50% sucrose gradient solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">0.5 M sucrose to make 0.5 M sucrose cushion</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">As above, cycloheximide, DTT, PMSF, and RNaseOUT must be added fresh.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">The 60% sucrose chase solution requires only sucrose and water, no other components</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">60% (w/v) sucrose in DEPC-treated water to make 60% sucrose chase solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">RNA Capture Wash Buffer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">20mM&#160; KCl</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">5unit/ml Rnase Out (Invitrogen)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">RNA Capture Elution Buffer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Same recipe as RNA Capture Wash Buffer, with the addition of:</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">2mM Biotin</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="28">
			<td height="28" style="height:28px;">EQUIPMENT</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">SW55 Ti ultracentrifuge rotor (Beckman, cat. no. 342194)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">SW41 Ti ultracentrifuge rotor (Beckman, cat. no. 331362)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="23">
			<td height="23" style="height:23px;">Ultra-ClearTM &#189; x 2 in (13 x 51 mm) ultracentrifuge tubes for the SW55 (Beckman, cat. no. 344057)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Polyallomer 9/16 x 3 &#189; in (14 x 89 mm) ultracentrifuge tubes for the SW41 (Beckman, cat. no. 331372)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">L8-80M ultracentrifuge (Beckman)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Steel blunt syringe needle, 4 inch, 16G (Aldrich, cat. no. Z261378)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">1 ml syringe with 27G&#189; needle (Becton Dickinson, cat no. 309623)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">5 ml syringe (Becton Dickinson, cat. no. 309646)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Parafilm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Tube rotator, end-over-end</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Microcentrifuge, refrigerated</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Density gradient fractionation system (Teledyne Isco, cat. no. 69-3873-179)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">TracerDAQ (Measurement Computing)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Eppendorf 5810R centrifuge</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Eppendorf A-4-81 rotor (Eppendorf, cat. no. 022638807)</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

methods to investigate the regulatory role of small rnas and ribosomal occupancy of plasmodium falciparum

הווריאציה הגנטית אחראית לאלל חרמשית (HBS) מאפשרת אריתרוציטים להתנגד זיהום על ידי טפיל המלריה, פ falciparum. הבסיס המולקולרי של התנגדות זו, אשר ידועה להיות גורמים מרובים, נשאר הבין באופן חלקי. מחקרים שנעשה לאחרונה מצאו כי ביטוי ההפרש של מיקרו RNA כדורית אדומה, translocated פעם לטפילי מלריה, להשפיע הן ויסות הגנים וצמיחת טפיל. miRNAs אלה מאוחר יותר הוצג לעכב תרגום mRNA על ידי יצירת תעתיקי הרנ&quot;א chimeric באמצעות 5 היתוך &#39;RNA עם תת דיסקרטי של mRNAs טפיל. כאן, בטכניקות ששמשו כדי ללמוד את התפקיד הפונקציונלי ומייקרו-רנ&quot;א כדורית אדומה המשוער מנגנון הבסיסי על ויסות הגנים ופוטנציאל translational של פ falciparum, כולל transfection של מיקרו RNA הסינתטי שונה לאריתרוציטים מארח, שיפורט. לבסוף, שיטת שיפוע polysome משמשת כדי לקבוע את מידת translation של תמלילים אלה. יחד, טכניקות אלה אפשרו לנו להוכיח כי רמות dysregulated של מיקרו RNA כדורית אדומה תורמות להתנגדות מלריה תא הפנימי של אריתרוציטים מגל.

פרופיל עולמי של microRNA האנושי בפ falciparum הטכניקות שהוצגו כאן שמשו כדי לחלץ מיקרו-רנ&quot;א מטפילים במגוון רחב של מצבים. דבר אחד שיש לציין הוא כי עקירות RNA לRBCs נגוע בוצעו כפי שצוינה ב -32, אשר לעתים קרובות שימשו כנקודת התייחסות ל?...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Methods to Investigate the Regulatory Role of Small RNAs and Ribosomal Occupancy of Plasmodium falciparum at JoVE.com

Methods to Investigate the Regulatory Role of Small RNAs and Ribosomal Occupancy of Plasmodium falciparum

Human microRNAs translocate from host erythrocytes to Plasmodium falciparum parasites. Here, the techniques used to transfect synthetic microRNAs into host erythrocytes and isolate all RNAs from P. falciparum are described. In addition, this paper will detail a method of polysome isolation in P. falciparum to determine the ribosomal occupancy and translational potential of parasite transcripts.

שיטות כדי לחקור את תפקיד הרגולציה של RNA הקטן וריבוזומלי תפוסה של<em&gt; Falciparum Plasmodium</em

The genetic variation responsible for the sickle cell allele (HbS) enables erythrocytes to resist infection by the malaria parasite, P. falciparum. The ...

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Immunology and Infection

Methods to Investigate the Regulatory Role of Small RNAs and Ribosomal Occupancy of Plasmodium falciparum

8.8K Views.  Duke University School of Medicine. Human microRNAs translocate from host erythrocytes to Plasmodium falciparum parasites. Here, the techniques used to transfect synthetic microRNAs into host erythrocytes and isolate all RNAs from P. falciparum are described. In addition, this paper will detail a method of polysome isolation in P. falciparum to determine the ribosomal occupancy and translational potential of parasite transcripts. 

Video: Methods to Investigate the Regulatory Role of Small RNAs and Ribosomal Occupancy of Plasmodium falciparum

Selection of Plasmodium falciparum Parasites for Cytoadhesion to Human Brain Endothelial Cells

Most human malaria deaths are caused by blood-stage Plasmodium falciparum parasites. Cerebral malaria, the most life-threatening complication of the disease, is characterised by an accumulation of Plasmodium falciparum infected red blood cells (iRBC) at pigmented trophozoite stage in the microvasculature of the brain2-4. This microvessel obstruction (sequestration) leads to acidosis, hypoxia and harmful inflammatory cytokines (reviewed in 5). Sequestration is also found in most microvascular tissues of the human body2, 3. The mechanism by which iRBC attach to the blood vessel walls is still poorly understood.
The immortalized Human Brain microvascular Endothelial Cell line (HBEC-5i) has been used as an in vitro model of the blood-brain barrier6. However, Plasmodium falciparum iRBC attach only poorly to HBEC-5i in vitro, unlike the dense sequestration that occurs in cerebral malaria cases. We therefore developed a panning assay to select (enrich) various P. falciparum strains for adhesion to HBEC-5i in order to obtain populations of high-binding parasites, more representative of what occurs in vivo.
A sample of a parasite culture (mixture of iRBC and uninfected RBC) at the pigmented trophozoite stage is washed and incubated on a layer of HBEC-5i grown on a Petri dish. After incubation, the dish is gently washed free from uRBC and unbound iRBC. Fresh uRBC are added to the few iRBC attached to HBEC-5i and incubated overnight. As schizont stage parasites burst, merozoites reinvade RBC and these ring stage parasites are harvested the following day. Parasites are cultured until enough material is obtained (typically 2 to 4 weeks) and a new round of selection can be performed. Depending on the P. falciparum strain, 4 to 7 rounds of selection are needed in order to get a population where most parasites bind to HBEC-5i. The binding phenotype is progressively lost after a few weeks, indicating a switch in variant surface antigen gene expression, thus regular selection on HBEC-5i is required to maintain the phenotype.
In summary, we developed a selection assay rendering P. falciparum parasites a more "cerebral malaria adhesive" phenotype. We were able to select 3 out of 4 P. falciparum strains on HBEC-5i. This assay has also successfully been used to select parasites for binding to human dermal and pulmonary endothelial cells. Importantly, this method can be used to select tissue-specific parasite populations in order to identify candidate parasite ligands for binding to brain endothelium. Moreover, this assay can be used to screen for putative anti-sequestration drugs7.

Selection of Plasmodium falciparum Parasites for Cytoadhesion to Human Brain Endothelial Cells

An in vitro model for cerebral malaria sequestration is described1. Plasmodium falciparum infected red blood cells are selected for binding to immortalized human brain microvascular endothelial cells. The selected parasites show a distinct phenotype. The selection process can be applied using various P. falciparum strains and endothelial cell lines.

מבחר Plasmodium falciparum טפילים עבור Cytoadhesion לתאי המוח האנושי האנדותל

Most human malaria deaths are caused by blood-stage Plasmodium falciparum parasites. Cerebral malaria, the most life-threatening complication of the ...

An Introduction to Parasitic Wasps of Drosophila and the Antiparasite Immune Response

Most known parasitoid wasp species attack the larval or pupal stages of Drosophila. While Trichopria drosophilae infect the pupal stages of the host (Fig. 1A-C), females of the genus Leptopilina (Fig. 1D, 1F, 1G) and Ganaspis (Fig. 1E) attack the larval stages. We use these parasites to study the molecular basis of a biological arms race. Parasitic wasps have tremendous value as biocontrol agents. Most of them carry virulence and other factors that modify host physiology and immunity. Analysis of Drosophila wasps is providing insights into how species-specific interactions shape the genetic structures of natural communities. These studies also serve as a model for understanding the hosts' immune physiology and how coordinated immune reactions are thwarted by this class of parasites.
The larval/pupal cuticle serves as the first line of defense. The wasp ovipositor is a sharp needle-like structure that efficiently delivers eggs into the host hemocoel. Oviposition is followed by a wound healing reaction at the cuticle (Fig. 1C, arrowheads). Some wasps can insert two or more eggs into the same host, although the development of only one egg succeeds. Supernumerary eggs or developing larvae are eliminated by a process that is not yet understood. These wasps are therefore referred to as solitary parasitoids.
Depending on the fly strain and the wasp species, the wasp egg has one of two fates. It is either encapsulated, so that its development is blocked (host emerges; Fig. 2 left); or the wasp egg hatches, develops, molts, and grows into an adult (wasp emerges; Fig. 2 right). L. heterotoma is one of the best-studied species of Drosophila parasitic wasps. It is a "generalist," which means that it can utilize most Drosophila species as hosts1. L. heterotoma and L. victoriae are sister species and they produce virus-like particles that actively interfere with the encapsulation response2. Unlike L. heterotoma, L. boulardi is a specialist parasite and the range of Drosophila species it utilizes is relatively limited1. Strains of L. boulardi also produce virus-like particles3 although they differ significantly in their ability to succeed on D. melanogaster1. Some of these L. boulardi strains are difficult to grow on D. melanogaster1 as the fly host frequently succeeds in encapsulating their eggs. Thus, it is important to have the knowledge of both partners in specific experimental protocols.
In addition to barrier tissues (cuticle, gut and trachea), Drosophila larvae have systemic cellular and humoral immune responses that arise from functions of blood cells and the fat body, respectively. Oviposition by L. boulardi activates both immune arms1,4. Blood cells are found in circulation, in sessile populations under the segmented cuticle, and in the lymph gland. The lymph gland is a small hematopoietic organ on the dorsal side of the larva. Clusters of hematopoietic cells, called lobes, are arranged segmentally in pairs along the dorsal vessel that runs along the anterior-posterior axis of the animal (Fig. 3A). The fat body is a large multifunctional organ (Fig. 3B). It secretes antimicrobial peptides in response to microbial and metazoan infections.
Wasp infection activates immune signaling (Fig. 4)4. At the cellular level, it triggers division and differentiation of blood cells. In self defense, aggregates and capsules develop in the hemocoel of infected animals (Fig. 5)5,6. Activated blood cells migrate toward the wasp egg (or wasp larva) and begin to form a capsule around it (Fig. 5A-F). Some blood cells aggregate to form nodules (Fig. 5G-H). Careful analysis reveals that wasp infection induces the anterior-most lymph gland lobes to disperse at their peripheries (Fig. 6C, D).
We present representative data with Toll signal transduction pathway components Dorsal and Sp&auml;tzle (Figs. 4,5,7), and its target Drosomycin (Fig. 6), to illustrate how specific changes in the lymph gland and hemocoel can be studied after wasp infection. The dissection protocols described here also yield the wasp eggs (or developing stages of wasps) from the host hemolymph (Fig. 8).

An Introduction to Parasitic Wasps of Drosophila and the Antiparasite Immune Response

Parasitoid (parasitic) wasps constitute a major class of natural enemies of many insects including Drosophila melanogaster. We will introduce the techniques to propagate these parasites in Drosophila spp. and demonstrate how to analyze their effects on immune tissues of Drosophila larvae.

מבוא של צרעות טפיליות<em&gt; תסיסנית</em&gt; ואת התגובה החיסונית Antiparasite

Most known parasitoid wasp species attack the larval or pupal stages of Drosophila. While Trichopria drosophilae infect the pupal stages of the host (Fig. ...

An In vitro Co-infection Model to Study Plasmodium falciparum-HIV-1 Interactions in Human Primary Monocyte-derived Immune Cells

Plasmodium falciparum, the causative agent of the deadliest form of malaria, and human immunodeficiency virus type-1 (HIV-1) are among the most important health problems worldwide, being responsible for a total of 4 million deaths annually1. Due to their extensive overlap in developing regions, especially Sub-Saharan Africa, co-infections with malaria and HIV-1 are common, but the interplay between the two diseases is poorly understood. Epidemiological reports have suggested that malarial infection transiently enhances HIV-1 replication and increases HIV-1 viral load in co-infected individuals2,3. Because this viremia stays high for several weeks after treatment with antimalarials, this phenomenon could have an impact on disease progression and transmission.
The cellular immunological mechanisms behind these observations have been studied only scarcely. The few in vitro studies investigating the impact of malaria on HIV-1 have demonstrated that exposure to soluble malarial antigens can increase HIV-1 infection and reactivation in immune cells. However, these studies used whole cell extracts of P. falciparum schizont stage parasites and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC), making it hard to decipher which malarial component(s) was responsible for the observed effects and what the target host cells were4,5. Recent work has demonstrated that exposure of immature monocyte-derived dendritic cells to the malarial pigment hemozoin increased their ability to transfer HIV-1 to CD4+ T cells6,7, but that it decreased HIV-1 infection of macrophages8. To shed light on this complex process, a systematic analysis of the interactions between the malaria parasite and HIV-1 in different relevant human primary cell populations is critically needed.
Several techniques for investigating the impact of HIV-1 on the phagocytosis of micro-organisms and the effect of such pathogens on HIV-1 replication have been described. We here present a method to investigate the effects of P. falciparum-infected erythrocytes on the replication of HIV-1 in human primary monocyte-derived macrophages. The impact of parasite exposure on HIV-1 transcriptional/translational events is monitored by using single cycle pseudotyped viruses in which a luciferase reporter gene has replaced the Env gene while the effect on the quantity of virus released by the infected macrophages is determined by measuring the HIV-1 capsid protein p24 by ELISA in cell supernatants.

An In vitro Co-infection Model to Study Plasmodium falciparum-HIV-1 Interactions in Human Primary Monocyte-derived Immune Cells

We have developed an in vitro malaria-HIV-1 co-infection model to study the impact of Plasmodium falciparum on the HIV-1 replicative cycle in human primary monocyte-derived macrophages. This versatile system can easily be adapted to other primary cell types susceptible to HIV-1 infection.

<em&gt; במבחנה</em&gt; שיתוף זיהום דגם ללמוד<em&gt; Plasmodium falciparum</em&gt;-HIV-1 אינטראקציות אדם מונוציטים הנגזרות תאים ראשוניים החיסון

Plasmodium falciparum, the causative agent  of the deadliest form of malaria, and human immunodeficiency virus type-1 (HIV-1) are among the most important ...

A Simple Protocol for Platelet-mediated Clumping of Plasmodium falciparum-infected Erythrocytes in a Resource Poor Setting

P. falciparum causes the majority of severe malarial infections. The pathophysiological mechanisms underlying cerebral malaria (CM) are not fully understood and several hypotheses have been put forward, including mechanical obstruction of microvessels by P. falciparum-parasitized red blood cells (pRBC). Indeed, during the intra-erythrocytic stage of its life cycle, P. falciparum has the unique ability to modify the surface of the infected erythrocyte by exporting surface antigens with varying adhesive properties onto the RBC membrane. This allows the sequestration of pRBC in multiple tissues and organs by adhesion to endothelial cells lining the microvasculature of post-capillary venules 1. By doing so, the mature forms of the parasite avoid splenic clearance of the deformed infected erythrocytes 2 and restrict their environment to a more favorable low oxygen pressure 3. As a consequence of this sequestration, it is only immature asexual parasites and gametocytes that can be detected in peripheral blood.
Cytoadherence and sequestration of mature pRBC to the numerous host receptors expressed on microvascular beds occurs in severe and uncomplicated disease. However, several lines of evidence suggest that only specific adhesive phenotypes are likely to be associated with severe pathological outcomes of malaria. One example of such specific host-parasite interactions has been demonstrated in vitro, where the ability of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 to support binding of pRBC with particular adhesive properties has been linked to development of cerebral malaria 4,5. The placenta has also been recognized as a site of preferential pRBC accumulation in malaria-infected pregnant women, with chondrotin sulphate A expressed on syncytiotrophoblasts that line the placental intervillous space as the main receptor 6. Rosetting of pRBC to uninfected erythrocytes via the complement receptor 1 (CD35)7,8 has also been associated with severe disease 9.
One of the most recently described P. falciparum cytoadherence phenotypes is the ability of the pRBC to form platelet-mediated clumps in vitro. The formation of such pRBC clumps requires CD36, a glycoprotein expressed on the surface of platelets. Another human receptor, gC1qR/HABP1/p32, expressed on diverse cell types including endothelial cells and platelets, has also been shown to facilitate pRBC adhesion on platelets to form clumps 10. Whether clumping occurs in vivo remains unclear, but it may account for the significant accumulation of platelets described in brain microvasculature of Malawian children who died from CM 11. In addition, the ability of clinical isolate cultures to clump in vitro was directly linked to the severity of disease in Malawian 12 and Mozambican patients 13, (although not in Malian 14).
With several aspects of the pRBC clumping phenotype poorly characterized, current studies on this subject have not followed a standardized procedure. This is an important issue because of the known high variability inherent in the assay 15. Here, we present a method for in vitro platelet-mediated clumping of P. falciparum with hopes that it will provide a platform for a consistent method for other groups and raise awareness of the limitations in investigating this phenotype in future studies. Being based in Malawi, we provide a protocol specifically designed for a limited resource setting, with the advantage that freshly collected clinical isolates can be examined for phenotype without need for cryopreservation.

A Simple Protocol for Platelet-mediated Clumping of Plasmodium falciparum-infected Erythrocytes in a Resource Poor Setting

This method investigates the platelet-mediated clumping phenotype of Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes (pRBC) in clinical isolates. This is performed by isolating and co-incubating platelet-rich plasma and a suspension of pRBC.

פרוטוקול פשוט לclumping טסיות דם בתיווך של<em&gt; Plasmodium falciparum</emאריתרוציטים&gt; נגועים בסביבה מסכנה משאבים

P. falciparum causes the majority of severe malarial infections. The pathophysiological mechanisms underlying cerebral malaria (CM) are not fully ...

Isolation and Analysis of Brain-sequestered Leukocytes from Plasmodium berghei ANKA-infected Mice

We describe a method for isolation and characterization of adherent inflammatory cells from brain blood vessels of P. berghei ANKA-infected mice. Infection of susceptible mouse-strains with this parasite strain results in the induction of experimental cerebral malaria, a neurologic syndrome that recapitulates certain important aspects of Plasmodium falciparum-mediated severe malaria in humans 1,2 . Mature forms of blood-stage malaria express parasitic proteins on the surface of the infected erythrocyte, which allows them to bind to vascular endothelial cells. This process induces obstructions in blood flow, resulting in hypoxia and haemorrhages 3 and also stimulates the recruitment of inflammatory leukocytes to the site of parasite sequestration.
Unlike other infections, i.e neutrotopic viruses4-6, both malaria-parasitized red blood cells (pRBC) as well as associated inflammatory leukocytes remain sequestered within blood vessels rather than infiltrating the brain parenchyma. Thus to avoid contamination of sequestered leukocytes with non-inflammatory circulating cells, extensive intracardial perfusion of infected-mice prior to organ extraction and tissue processing is required in this procedure to remove the blood compartment. After perfusion, brains are harvested and dissected in small pieces. The tissue structure is further disrupted by enzymatic treatment with Collagenase D and DNAse I. The resulting brain homogenate is then centrifuged on a Percoll gradient that allows separation of brain-sequestered leukocytes (BSL) from myelin and other tissue debris. Isolated cells are then washed, counted using a hemocytometer and stained with fluorescent antibodies for subsequent analysis by flow cytometry.
This procedure allows comprehensive phenotypic characterization of inflammatory leukocytes migrating to the brain in response to various stimuli, including stroke as well as viral or parasitic infections. The method also provides a useful tool for assessment of novel anti-inflammatory treatments in pre-clinical animal models.

Isolation and Analysis of Brain-sequestered Leukocytes from Plasmodium berghei ANKA-infected Mice

A method for isolation of adherent inflammatory leukocytes from brain blood vessels of Plasmodium berghei ANKA-infected mice is described. The method allows quantification as well as phenotypic characterization of isolated leukocytes after staining with fluorescent antibodies and subsequent analysis by flow cytometry.

בידוד ואנליזה של Leukocytes המוחי מוחרם מ<em&gt; Plasmodium berghei</em&gt; עכברי אנקה נגוע

We describe a method for isolation and  characterization of adherent inflammatory cells from brain blood vessels of P. berghei ANKA-infected mice. ...

Separation of Plasmodium falciparum Late Stage-infected Erythrocytes by Magnetic Means

Unlike other Plasmodium species, P. falciparum can be cultured in the lab, which facilitates its study 1. While the parasitemia achieved can reach the &asymp;40% limit, the investigator usually keeps the percentage at around 10%. In many cases it is necessary to isolate the parasite-containing red blood cells (RBCs) from the uninfected ones, to enrich the culture and proceed with a given experiment. 
When P. falciparum infects the erythrocyte, the parasite degrades and feeds from haemoglobin 2, 3. However, the parasite must deal with a very toxic iron-containing haem moiety 4, 5. The parasite eludes its toxicity by transforming the haem into an inert crystal polymer called haemozoin 6, 7. This iron-containing molecule is stored in its food vacuole and the metal in it has an oxidative state which differs from the one in haem 8. The ferric state of iron in the haemozoin confers on it a paramagnetic property absent in uninfected erythrocytes. As the invading parasite reaches maturity, the content of haemozoin also increases 9, which bestows even more paramagnetism on the latest stages of P. falciparum inside the erythrocyte.
Based on this paramagnetic property, the latest stages of P. falciparum infected-red blood cells can be separated by passing the culture through a column containing magnetic beads. These beads become magnetic when the columns containing them are placed on a magnet holder. Infected RBCs, due to their paramagnetism, will then be trapped inside the column, while the flow-through will contain, for the most part, uninfected erythrocytes and those containing early stages of the parasite.
Here, we describe the methodology to enrich the population of late stage parasites with magnetic columns, which maintains good parasite viability 10. After performing this procedure, the unattached culture can be returned to an incubator to allow the remaining parasites to continue growing.

Separation of Plasmodium falciparum Late Stage-infected Erythrocytes by Magnetic Means

The paramagnetic properties of hemozoin are used to isolate late stages of Plasmodium falciparum-infected red blood cells growing in culture. The method is simple and fast and does not affect the subsequent invasive capabilities of the parasites.

הפרדה<em&gt; Plasmodium falciparum</emאריתרוציטים&gt; שלב מאוחר נגועים באמצעי מגנטי

Unlike other Plasmodium species, P. falciparum can be cultured in the lab, which facilitates its study 1. While the parasitemia achieved can reach the ...

High Yield Purification of Plasmodium falciparum Merozoites For Use in Opsonizing Antibody Assays

Plasmodium falciparum merozoite antigens are under development as potential malaria vaccines. One aspect of immunity against malaria is the removal of free merozoites from the blood by phagocytic cells. However assessing the functional efficacy of merozoite specific opsonizing antibodies is challenging due to the short half-life of merozoites and the variability of primary phagocytic cells. Described in detail herein is a method for generating viable merozoites using the E64 protease inhibitor, and an assay of merozoite opsonin-dependent phagocytosis using the pro-monocytic cell line THP-1. E64 prevents schizont rupture while allowing the development of merozoites which are released by filtration of treated schizonts. &#160;Ethidium bromide labelled merozoites are opsonized with human plasma samples and added to THP-1 cells. Phagocytosis is assessed by a standardized high throughput protocol. Viable merozoites are a valuable resource for assessing numerous aspects of P. falciparum biology, including assessment of immune function. Antibody levels measured by this assay are associated with clinical immunity to malaria in naturally exposed individuals. The assay may also be of use for assessing vaccine induced antibodies. &#160;

High Yield Purification of Plasmodium falciparum Merozoites For Use in Opsonizing Antibody Assays

Measuring antibody function is key to understanding immunity to Plasmodium falciparum malaria. This method describes the purification of viable merozoites, and measurement of opsonization-dependent phagocytosis by flow cytometry.

טיהור תשואה גבוהה של<em&gt; Falciparum Plasmodium</em&gt; Merozoites לשימוש בOpsonizing נוגדן מבחני

Plasmodium falciparum merozoite antigens are under development as potential malaria vaccines. One aspect of immunity against malaria is the removal of ...

Genotyping of Staphylococcus aureus by Ribosomal Spacer PCR (RS-PCR)

The ribosomal spacer PCR (RS-PCR) is a highly resolving and robust genotyping method for S. aureus that allows a high throughput at moderate costs and is, therefore, suitable to be used for routine purposes. For best resolution, data evaluation and data management, a miniaturized electrophoresis system is required. Together with such an electrophoresis system and the in-house developed software (freely available here) assignment of the pattern of bands to a genotype is standardized and straight forward. DNA extraction is simple (boiling prep), setting-up of the reactions is easy and they can be run on any standard PCR machine. PCR cycling is common except prolonged ramping and elongation times. Compared to spa typing and Multi Locus Sequence Typing (MLST), RS-PCR does not require DNA sequencing what simplifies the analysis considerably and allows a high throughput. Furthermore, the resolution for bovine strains of S. aureus is at least as good as spa typing and better than MLST or pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). The RS-PCR data base includes presently a total of 141 genotypes and variants. The method is highly associated with the virulence gene pattern, contagiosity and pathogenicity of S. aureus strains involved in bovine mastitis. S. aureus genotype B (GTB) is contagious and causes herds problems causing large costs in the Switzerland and other European countries. All the other genotypes observed in Switzerland infect individual cows and quarters. Genotyping by RS-PCR allows the reliable prediction of the epidemiological and the pathogenic potential of S. aureus involved in bovine intramammary infection (IMI), two key factors for clinical veterinary medicine. Because of these beneficial properties together with moderate costs and a high sample throughput the goal of this publication is to give a detailed, step-by-step protocol for easily establishing and running RS-PCR for genotyping S. aureus in other laboratories.

Genotyping of Staphylococcus aureus by Ribosomal Spacer PCR RS-PCR

Here, ribosomal spacer PCR (RS-PCR) is used together with a miniaturized electrophoresis system as a fast and high resolution method for genotyping S. aureus at moderate costs allowing a high throughput.

genotyping של<em&gt; Staphylococcus aureus</em&gt; על ידי ריבוזומלי Spacer PCR (RS-PCR)

The ribosomal spacer PCR (RS-PCR) is a highly resolving and robust genotyping method for S. aureus that allows a high throughput at moderate costs and is, ...

Using Phylogenetic Analysis to Investigate Eukaryotic Gene Origin

Phylogenetic analysis uses nucleotide or amino acid sequences or other parameters, such as domain sequences and three-dimensional structure, to construct a tree to show the evolutionary relationship among different taxa (classification units) at the molecular level. Phylogenetic analysis can also be used to investigate domain relationships within an individual taxon, particularly for organisms that have undergone substantial change in morphology and physiology, but for which researchers lack fossil evidence due to the organisms&#39; long evolutionary history or scarcity of fossilization.
In this text, a detailed protocol is described for using the phylogenetic method, including amino acid sequence alignment using Clustal Omega, and subsequent phylogenetic tree construction using both Maximum Likelihood (ML) of Molecular Evolutionary Genetics Analysis (MEGA) and Bayesian Inference via MrBayes. To investigate the origin of eukaryotic Sugars Will Eventually be Exported Transporters (SWEET) genes, 228 SWEETs including 35 SWEET proteins from unicellular eukaryotes and 57 SemiSWEET proteins from prokaryotes were analyzed. Interestingly, SemiSWEETs were found in prokaryotes, but SWEETs were found in eukaryotes. Two phylogenetic trees constructed using theoretically distinct methods have consistently&#160;suggested that the first eukaryotic SWEET gene might stem from the fusion of a bacterial SemiSWEET gene and an archaeal SemiSWEET gene.&#160;It is worth noting that one should be cautious to draw a conclusion based only on phylogenetic analysis, although it is useful to explain the underlying relationship between different taxa, which is difficult or even impossible to discern through experimental means.

A method of constructing a phylogenetic tree based on sequence homology of SWEETs from eukaryotes and SemiSWEETs from prokaryotes is described. Phylogenetic analysis is a useful tool for explaining the evolutionary relatedness between homologous proteins or genes from different organism groups.

באמצעות ניתוח פילוגנטי לחקור האיקריוטים מקור גנטי

Phylogenetic analysis uses nucleotide or amino acid sequences or other parameters, such as domain sequences and three-dimensional structure, to construct ...

Bone Marrow Transplantation Platform to Investigate the Role of Dendritic Cells in Graft-versus-Host Disease

Allogeneic bone marrow transplantation (BMT) is an effective therapy for hematological malignancies due to the graft-versus-leukemia (GVL) effect to eradicate tumors. However, its application is limited by the development of graft-versus-host disease (GVHD), a major complication of BMT. GVHD is evoked when T-cells in the donor grafts recognizealloantigen expressed by recipient cells and mount unwanted immunological attacks against recipient healthy tissues. Thus, traditional therapies are designed to suppress donor T-cell alloreactivity. However, these approaches substantially impair the GVL effect so that the recipient&#39;s survival is not improved. Understanding the effects of therapeutic approaches on BMT, GVL, and GVHD, is thus essential. Due to the antigen-presenting and cytokine-secreting capacities to stimulate donor T-cells, recipient dendritic cells (DCs) play a significant role in the induction of GVHD. Therefore, targeting recipient DCs becomes a potential approach for controlling GVHD. This work provides a description of a novel BMT platform to investigate how host DCs regulate GVH and GVL responses after transplantation. Also presented is an effective BMT model to study the biology of GVHD and GVL after transplantation.

Graft-versus-host disease is a major complication after allogeneic bone marrow transplantation. Dendritic cells play a critical role in the pathogenesis of graft-versus-host disease. The current article describes a novel bone marrow transplantation platform to investigate the role of dendritic cells in the development of graft-versus-host disease and the graft-versus-leukemia effect.

עצם השתלת מח פלטפורמת לחקור את התפקיד של תאים דנדריטים במחלה שתל-מול מארח

Allogeneic bone marrow transplantation (BMT) is an effective therapy for hematological malignancies due to the graft-versus-leukemia (GVL) effect to ...