The methodology was originally developed in Dr. Hongjun Song's laboratory at the Institute for Cell Engineering, Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine. This work was funded by NIMH (R00MH090115), NARSAD, the Fraternal Order of Eagles' Mayo Cancer Research Fund and a start-up package from Mayo foundation awarded to M.H.J. and Basic Science Research Program through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (A3014385) awarded to W.R.K.

1. Pre-immunohistochemistry: Perfusion and Histology
<ol>
	<li>Perfuse mice as per a general transcardial protocol adapted for mice and extract the brains into 4% paraformaldehyde (PFA)9.</li>
	<li>Leave the brains in PFA overnight at 4 &#176;C (e.g. a 10 ml conical tube filled with PFA). Keep in PFA for at least 12-24 hr, no more than 36 hr for full fixation. After overnight fixation, empty out PFA from conical tube but leave brains inside. Pour 30% sucrose into tube and wash the brains for a brief 5 sec to remove any residual PFA. Finally, fill tube containing brains with 30% sucrose again. Keep brains in sucrose at 4 &#176;C until brains sink to the bottom of tube.</li>
	<li>Cut 40 &#956;m brain sections on a microtome. Consult a mouse brain atlas to start collecting sections from the beginning of the dentate gyrus till its end. Preserve sections in anti-freeze solution (a simple recipe is 300 g sucrose in 500 ml 0.1 M PBS and 300 ml ethylene glycol) until ready for immunohistochemistry.</li>
	<li>Mount the cut tissue on microscope slides specifically designed to adhere strongly to tissue. These slides provide a strong hold to tissue during the boiling stage. After mounting the tissue, please let the slide dry for 10 min or until it is fully dry. Drying can be expedited if the slide is rested against a vertical surface with the slide&#39;s bottom edge on a paper towel. If more than one slide is being mounted, the other slide(s) may be left dry during that time (1-2 hr is okay) until ready to proceed to the next step.</li>
	<li>Once slide is dry, wash with PBS three times for 5 min each and dry again (PBS buffer = 0.137 M NaCl, 0.0027 M KCl, 0.0119 M Na2PO4). This ensures any previous chemical (such as glycerol from anti-freeze storage solution) is sufficiently removed and cannot impair the tissue&#39;s adherence to the slide.</li>
</ol>
2. Preparation of Reagents and Minor Equipment
<ol>
	<li>Prepare Solution A (0.1 M or 19.21 g/l citric acid) and Solution B (0.1 M or 24.9 g/l tris-sodium citrate) in which tissue sections will be boiled.</li>
	<li>In a graduated cylinder, combine 9 ml of Solution A and 41 ml of Solution B. Add 450 ml of ddH2O to this mixture.</li>
	<li>Pour this mixture into an empty container (e.g. an empty pipette tips box) that is microwave safe.</li>
</ol>
3. Heat-induced Antigen Retrieval
<ol>
	<li>Boil solution made in step 2 for 5 min at standard setting in a standard microwave. The solution will start boiling at or above 100 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Once boiling is complete, carefully remove container from microwave and place dried slides into it, ensuring the slide-face with hippocampal sections is facing down and fully exposed to the liquid. If possible, place slides at an angle against the walls of the box and stack other slides around them. Ensure their &#34;fit&#34; inside the box is tight so the slides have no room to move on top of each other.</li>
	<li>Boil this mixture with slides for 7 min at standard settings in the microwave. The solution will boil during this time at or above 100 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>During this boiling stage, fill two ice buckets halfway with ice.</li>
	<li>Once boiling in step 3.3 is complete, remove the container from the microwave and place it inside one of the ice buckets. Pour the rest of the ice from the other bucket all around the container and completely cover it. Let it sit for 1 hr.</li>
</ol>
4. Primary and Secondary Antibody Staining
<ol>
	<li>At the end of the 1 hr waiting period, remove the slides from the container and wash with TBS-T buffer 3x for 5 min each. Any apparatus may be used to perform these basic washes. (Buffer TBS = 50 mM Tris HCl, 150 mM NaCl, TBS-T = 0.05% Triton X-100 TBS buffer, TBS-TT = 4% donkey serum TBS-T buffer).</li>
	<li>After washing, let the slides dry in a dark place (e.g. inside a bench drawer, place a paper towel inside the drawer and tilt the slide against it) for 5-10 min or until slide is fully dry. During this period, prepare a chamber for overnight primary antibody staining. A simple staining chamber may include a container with large surface area filled with ddH2O and a stage inside the container, on top of which the slide may be rested above the ddH2O.</li>
	<li>Once the slide has dried, draw an outline around the tissue sections using a water-repellant pen. During step 4.5, this outline acts as a barrier preventing the antibody mixture from flowing over.</li>
	<li>Prepare the primary antibody mixture in TBS-TT. At least 500 &#956;l is required to cover one entire slide for instance, if antibody stock is at 1:500 concentration, add 1 &#956;l of particular antibody to 500 &#956;l of TBS-TT). Utilize primary antibodies as mentioned in the reagents table.</li>
	<li>Place the dried slide on top of the stage in the staining chamber. Add 500 &#956;l of the primary antibodies slowly and cover entire surface. Cover entire apparatus and wrap in aluminum foil to block external light. Let it sit overnight at room temperature.</li>
	<li>The next day, wash the slide three times for 5 min each with TBS-T buffer. Let it dry in a dark area as described in step 4.2.</li>
	<li>Prepare secondary antibody mixture similar to step 4.4. Refer to reagents table for secondary antibodies.</li>
	<li>Place the dried slide in the staining chamber as described in steps 4.2 and 4.5. Add 500 &#956;l of the secondary antibodies slowly and cover entire surface. Wrap the staining chamber in aluminum foil to protect it from external light. Let it sit covered and protected from external light for at least 2 hr at room temperature.</li>
	<li>After completion of secondary staining, wash the slide three times for 5 min each with TBS-T buffer. Let the slide dry in a dark area. After drying, put mounting solution and cover the slide with a cover slip carefully preventing any introduction of bubbles. Let the slide sit in a dark area for at least 2 hr before subsequent analysis.</li>
	<li>Perform time-lapse or confocal analysis on the stained tissue.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Ming, G. L., Song, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Adult+neurogenesis+in+the+mammalian+central+nervous+system.">Adult neurogenesis in the mammalian central nervous system.</a> Annual Reviews of Neuroscience. 28, 223-250 (2005).</li><li>Santarelli, L., Saxe, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Requirement+of+hippocampal+neurogenesis+for+the+behavioral+effects+of+antidepressants.">Requirement of hippocampal neurogenesis for the behavioral effects of antidepressants.</a> Science. 301 (5634), 805-809 (2003).</li><li>Sahay, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Increasing+adult+hippocampal+neurogenesis+is+sufficient+to+improve+pattern+separation.">Increasing adult hippocampal neurogenesis is sufficient to improve pattern separation.</a> Nature. 472 (7344), 466-4670 (2011).</li><li>Clelland, C. D., Choi, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+functional+role+for+adult+hippocampal+neurogenesis+in+spatial+pattern+separation.">A functional role for adult hippocampal neurogenesis in spatial pattern separation.</a> Science. 325 (5937), 210-213 (2009).</li><li>Wang, J. W., David, D. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chronic+fluoxetine+stimulates+maturation+and+synaptic+plasticity+of+adult-born+hippocampal+granule+cells.">Chronic fluoxetine stimulates maturation and synaptic plasticity of adult-born hippocampal granule cells.</a> Journal of Neuroscience. 28 (6), 1374-1384 (2008).</li><li>D'Amico, F., Skarmoutsou, E., Stivala, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=State+of+the+art+in+antigen+retrieval+for+immunohistochemistry.">State of the art in antigen retrieval for immunohistochemistry.</a> Journal of Immunological Methods. 341 (1-2), 1-18 (2009).</li><li>Daneshtalab, N., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Troubleshooting+tissue+specificity+and+antibody+selection:+Procedures+in+immunohistochemical+studies.">Troubleshooting tissue specificity and antibody selection: Procedures in immunohistochemical studies.</a> Journal of Pharmacological and Toxicological Methods. 61 (2), 127-135 (2010).</li><li>Jang, M. H., Bonaguidi, M. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Secreted+frizzled-related+protein+3+regulates+activity-dependent+adult+hippocampal+neurogenesis.">Secreted frizzled-related protein 3 regulates activity-dependent adult hippocampal neurogenesis.</a> Cell Stem Cell. 12 (2), 215-223 (2013).</li><li>Gage, G. J., Kipke, D. R., Shain, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Whole+Animal+Perfusion+Fixation+for+Rodents.">Whole Animal Perfusion Fixation for Rodents.</a> J. Vis. Exp. (65), e3564 (2012).</li><li>Porcelli, M., Cacciapuoti, G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Non-thermal+effects+of+microwaves+on+proteins:+Thermophilic+enzymes+as+model+system.">Non-thermal effects of microwaves on proteins: Thermophilic enzymes as model system.</a> FEBS Letters. 402 (2-3), 102-106 (1997).</li><li>Stone, J. R., Walker, S. A., Povlishock, J. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+visualization+of+a+new+class+of+traumatically+injured+axons+through+the+use+of+a+modified+method+of+microwave+antigen+retrieval.">The visualization of a new class of traumatically injured axons through the use of a modified method of microwave antigen retrieval.</a> Acta Neuropathologica. 97 (4), 335-346 (1999).</li></ol>

The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

The most critical steps for successful antigen-retrieval and staining of progenitor cell types are: 1) utilizing well perfused and fixed tissue of the optimal coronal thickness; 2) allowing sufficient time for boiling and subsequent cooling during antigen retrieval; 3) manual dexterity in mounting fixed coronal sections and preventing their damage when doing so.
It is critical in IHC to use perfused tissue that has undergone sufficient fixation but not over-fixation. A primary difficulty can b...

Neurogenesis, the generation of new neurons from neural stem cells, is now known to constantly occur into adulthood in two specialized regions in the brain. These include the subventricular zone (SVZ) of the olfactory bulb and the subgranular zone (SGZ) of the dentate gyrus in the hippocampus. Over the past decade, the field of adult hippocampal neurogenesis has seen significant work. The region has attracted much interest since newborn neurons in the SGZ contribute to enhanced neural plasticity that can sustain specific brain functions1-5. Adult hippocampal neurogenesis has been implicated to play important roles in mood regulation, regeneration, and learning and memory. Thus, there has been a concerted effort to understand the development and regulation of neurons in this rich neurogenic niche.
An unavoidable and important aspect of studying adult hippocampal neurogenesis is the identification of separate stages that an activated neural stem cell passes through on its way to becoming a fully functional neuron. In this process, the quiescent neural stem cell is activated and proceeds through a series of early active and late active progenitor cell types (Figure 1). These distinct populations of neural progenitors can be identified by morphology and their expression of molecular markers such as MCM2, nestin, Tbr2 and Doublecortin (DCX) and NeuN that guide the conversion of RGLs into their respective progenitor cell types. Nestin is an intermediate filament protein that is expressed across the radial glia-like cells and some early progenitor cell types. Another marker is Tbr2 that is specifically expressed in the amplifying progenitor cells. The Tbr2 transgene expression is initially switched off in the Type-1 cells (radial-glia like), turned on across the Type-2a, Type-2ab and Type-2b progenitors and switched off among the more differentiated Type-3 and immature neurons (Figure 1). DCX is a neuronal migration marker which is expressed in the Type-2ab, Type-2b and Type-3 neural progenitors. Using this combination of three markers, we can label distinct subtypes of neural progenitors. These include the Type-1 (MCM2+nestin+Tbr2-), Type-2a (MCM2+nestin+Tbr2+), Type-2ab (partial MCM2+nestin-Tbr2+ and partial MCM2+Tbr2+DCX-), Type-2b (MCM2+Tbr2+DCX+) and Type-3 (MCM2+Tbr2-DCX+). Post-mitotic cells such as the immature and functionally integrated neurons can be identified by utilizing DCX and the mature neuronal marker, NeuN.
Traditional methods of IHC utilize antibodies to identify antigens for specific cell types based on their gene expression. Subsequent visualization through high resolution imaging techniques such as confocal microscopy can be utilized for their identification. However, currently there are problems that exist with these methods that don't allow efficient identification of the radial glia-like cells and early progenitor cell types. It is difficult to identify these particular cell types because the applied antibody is not able to penetrate and efficiently bind the nestin protein. Nestin is the intermediate filament protein that comprises the radial processes produced by the radial glia-like cell. The inefficient binding of an antibody to the antigen can be a result of many factors including fixation time, temperature and technique utilized6-7. To help solve such issues, we have developed an antigen-retrieval or "boiling" method. Besides nestin, this method of antigen-retrieval also improves staining for other markers such as Ki67, BrdU, glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), Tbr2 and MCM2. Our method combines together chemical and physical approaches. It involves chemical fixation of the tissue in paraformaldehyde and subsequent high temperature boiling of thin coronal hippocampal sections in a buffer of a denaturant and chaotropic treatment. This enhances accessibility of the antigen to the antibody, improves antibody specificity and allows improved identification of progenitor cell types. Our approach is simple to use requiring mostly already available tools and reagents in the laboratory. We have utilized it extensively to study development of neural stem cells and their regulation via intrinsic genetic or extrinsic environmental factors8.

<table border="1">
 <tbody>
 <tr>
 <td>Name of the reagent</td>
 <td>Company</td>
 <td>Catalogue number</td>
 <td>Comments (optional)</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>SuperFrost Plus Slide</td>
 <td>Fisherbrand</td>
 <td>12-550-15</td>
 <td>Provides strong adherence to hippocampal tissue during boiling</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>PVA/DABCO Mounting Media</td>
 <td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
 <td>10981-100 ml</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Nestin (chicken) </td>
 <td>Aves Lab</td>
 <td>NES</td>
 <td>Neural stem cell marker</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>GFAP (rabbit)</td>
 <td>Dako North America</td>
 <td>Z033401-2</td>
 <td>Astrocyte and neural stem cell marker</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>MCM2 (mouse)</td>
 <td>BD Transduction Laboratory</td>
 <td>610701</td>
 <td>Proliferation marker</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>DCX (goat)</td>
 <td>Santa Cruz Biotechnology</td>
 <td>SC8066</td>
 <td>Immature neuron marker</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Tbr2 (rabbit)</td>
 <td>Abcam</td>
 <td>Ab23345</td>
 <td>Amplifying progenitor marker</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>NeuN (mouse)</td>
 <td>Millipore</td>
 <td>MAB377</td>
 <td>Mature neuron marker</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Cy2 (anti-rabbit)</td>
 <td>Jackson Immunoresearch</td>
 <td>111-226-047</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Cy2 (anti-chicken)</td>
 <td>Jackson Immunoresearch</td>
 <td>303-165-006</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Cy5 (anti-mouse)</td>
 <td>Jackson Immunoresearch</td>
 <td>315-175-047</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Cy5 (anti-goat)</td>
 <td>Jackson Immunoresearch</td>
 <td>305-165-047</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>DAPI</td>
 <td>Life Technologies Corporation</td>
 <td>D1306</td>
 <td></td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td>Dako Pen</td>
 <td>S2002</td>
 <td>Dako</td>
 <td>Water-repellant pen</td>
 </tr>
 </tbody>
</table>

heat-induced antigen retrieval: an effective method to detect and identify progenitor cell types during adult hippocampal neurogenesis

Traditional methods of immunohistochemistry (IHC) following tissue fixation allow visualization of various cell types. These typically proceed with the application of antibodies to bind antigens and identify cells with characteristics that are a function of the inherent biology and development. Adult hippocampal neurogenesis is a sequential process wherein a quiescent neural stem cell can become activated and proceed through stages of proliferation, differentiation, maturation and functional integration. Each phase is distinct with a characteristic morphology and upregulation of genes. Identification of these phases is important to understand the regulatory mechanisms at play and any alterations in this process that underlie the pathophysiology of debilitating disorders. Our heat-induced antigen retrieval approach improves the intensity of the signal that is detected and allows correct identification of the progenitor cell type. As discussed in this paper, it especially allows us to circumvent current problems in detection of certain progenitor cell types.

Adult hippocampal neurogenesis is a sequential process where the representative progenitor cell type at each stage may be identified with a combination of markers. Careful chemical fixation and antigen-retrieval improves the effectiveness and accessibility of markers that are otherwise difficult to detect. One of these is nestin which is expressed among the radial glia-like neural stem cells and some early active progenitor cell types. Nestin can be a key protein in identifying early progenitor cell types as its expressi...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Heat-Induced Antigen Retrieval: An Effective Method to Detect and Identify Progenitor Cell Types during Adult Hippocampal Neurogenesis at JoVE.com

Heat-Induced Antigen Retrieval: An Effective Method to Detect and Identify Progenitor Cell Types during Adult Hippocampal Neurogenesis

During adult hippocampal neurogenesis, a distinct set of genetic markers are expressed when a quiescent neural stem cell sequentially progresses and develops into a functionally integrated neuron in the circuit. Using heat-induced antigen retrieval, progenitor cell types that are otherwise difficult to detect are identified with improved effectiveness.

Traditional  methods of immunohistochemistry (IHC) following tissue fixation allow visualization  of various cell types. These typically proceed with the ...

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12.4K Views.  Mayo Clinic College of Medicine. During adult hippocampal neurogenesis, a distinct set of genetic markers are expressed when a quiescent neural stem cell sequentially progresses and develops into a functionally integrated neuron in the circuit. Using heat-induced antigen retrieval, progenitor cell types that are otherwise difficult to detect are identified with improved effectiveness.