We thank Stephan Uphoff for discussions. 
R.C. was supported by Linacre College, Oxford University. A.P. was supported by the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD), the German National Academic Foundation and EPSRC. M.S. was supported by the Wellcome Trust. A.N.K. was supported by a UK BBSRC grant (BB/H01795X/1), and a European Research Council Starter grant (261227).

<ol>
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The authors have nothing to disclose.

Molti parametri possono essere variati durante elettroporazione cellulare e acquisizione dati a seconda del sistema biologico di interesse e la precisa natura dell&#39;esperimento (a livello di cella o l&#39;analisi singola molecola). Ad esempio, quando electroporating DNA in batteri, 0,25-5 pmol di frammenti marcati dsDNA porta ad una bassa efficienza interiorizzazione, permettendo il rilevamento diretto singola molecola (es., Senza la necessità di photobleaching anticipo). Sopra 5 pmol dsDNA, le cellule tendono ad essere pesantemente caricato, un regime più adatto per l&#39;analisi singola cellula. Tutti DNA etichettati dovrebbero essere precedentemente gel purificato per eliminare ogni traccia di colorante libero (fluoroforo non reagito) dalla soluzione di DNA magazzino. Inoltre, i potenziali problemi con la degradazione del DNA, in particolare per gli esperimenti smFRET, possono essere affrontate utilizzando DNA con acidi nucleici innaturali, o motivi che proteggono exonuclease accessibili termini come loop tornanti. Un&#39;altra adjustablparametro e in elettroporazione è l&#39;intensità del campo applicato durante elettroporazione. Intensità bassa di campo (~ 1 kV / cm) porterà ad una bassa efficienza di carico appropriata per gli studi singola molecola. Intensità di campo più elevate (fino a 1,8 kV / cm) aumenterà l&#39;efficienza di carico; Tuttavia, vi è una correlazione inversa tra intensità di campo e vitalità cellulare dopo elettroporazione (vedere Figura 4). Per riferimento, una intensità di campo normale usati per batteri e lieviti elettroporazione è ~ 1,5 kV / cm. La costante di tempo, che rappresenta la lunghezza di questo decadimento, è un parametro conveniente seguire, poiché la costante di tempo gocce non appena si verifica alcun fenomeno arco nella cuvetta. In Impostazioni normali, la costante di tempo deve essere superiore a 4 ms; valori più bassi porterà a bassa efficienza di carico o cellule danneggiate anche non caricati. La maggior parte elettroporatori offrono altri gradi di libertà (come &quot;troncamento impulsi&quot; o &quot;pulse forma&quot;) che può essere modificato per sintonizzare siacarico delle cellule e la vitalità. Abbiamo applicato questo metodo per entrambi i batteri e lieviti, tuttavia procedure analoghe dovrebbero anche consentire l&#39;internalizzazione di biomolecole marcati nelle cellule di mammifero utilizzando appropriate impostazioni elettroporatore dal loro membrana è in realtà meno complessa (singolo doppio strato lipidico) e dal elettroporazione è già stato utilizzato con tali cellule 21. Quando internalizzazione proteine ​​marcate, tutto colorante libero deve essere rimosso dal marcato soluzione proteica magazzino prima elettroporazione. Molecole di colorante libero, a causa delle loro dimensioni più piccole, possono essere internalizzati preferenzialmente sulle proteine ​​di interesse, e sono difficili da distinguere durante l&#39;analisi dei dati (nonostante la loro diffusione più veloce previsto). Come guida, per un campione di proteina marcata organicamente sia adatto per elettroporazione, la quantità di colorante libero residuo deve essere inferiore al 2% (rilevato utilizzando scansione fluorescenza di una SDS-PAGE) 22. Questo processo è particolarmente importante,come alcune molecole potrebbero attaccarsi alle membrane esterne di batteri o lieviti elettroporate. A questo proposito, il campione di controllo negativo dovrebbe visualizzare l&#39;intensità di fluorescenza per cella nettamente inferiore cellule elettroporate, idealmente a partire da livello autofluorescenza di celle vuote (cellule che non sono stati incubati con eventuali biomolecole fluorescente né elettroporate, Figura 2). Come con dsDNA, l&#39;efficienza internalizzazione di proteine ​​marcate è legato alla quantità di biomolecole aggiunti alle cellule prima di elettroporazione. Tuttavia, altri parametri, quali le dimensioni e la carica, giocano un ruolo nella internalizzazione. Piccole proteine ​​presentano efficienze elevate internalizzazione, mentre le proteine ​​più grandi (fino a 98 kDa) possono essere internalizzati con successo ma con minore efficienza (Figura 5) 26. Il punto isolelectric della proteina, potenziali interazioni con la membrana cellulare e gli altri parametri fisico ancheinfluenza cella di carico durante elettroporazione. Come risultato, gli utenti devono ottimizzare esperimenti per il proprio sistema, sapendo che un&#39;alta concentrazione iniziale di proteina marcata (&gt; 50 pM) darà le migliori possibilità di successo per il caricamento. Elettroporazione offre anche un nuovo strumento per turbare e analizzare la funzione cellulare introducendo proteine ​​e altre biomolecole in cellule (o etichettati o senza etichetta). Gli esperimenti T7 RNA polimerasi (Figura 5C) presenti un esempio di un esperimento in cui possiamo introdurre una biomolecola che può cambiare l&#39;espressione genica in vivo utilizzando elettroporazione. Quando si esegue esperimenti fluorescenza singola molecola, illuminazione TIR è solitamente favorita rispetto altre modalità di illuminazione in quanto offre il miglior rapporto segnale-rumore di soli eccitanti fluorofori all&#39;interno di una sezione sottile sopra la superficie coprioggetto (~ 100 nm). Tuttavia di imaging etichettati biomolecole diffondono all&#39;interno microrganismi viventi potrebbero riquire illuminazione più profondo (fino a 0,8 micron per E. coli). Illuminazione più profondo si ottiene in modalità HILO, mantenendo un alto rapporto segnale-rumore. D&#39;altra parte, l&#39;imaging ampio campo è particolarmente importante per l&#39;analisi fotoscolorimento graduale, in cui l&#39;utente sta valutando il numero di molecole internalizzati dalle photobleaching un&#39;intera cellula caricato con elevato potere laser e dividendo l&#39;intensità iniziale fluorescenza cellulare dall&#39;intensità unitaria prodotta da una singola molecola (passo singolo photobleaching, Figura 3). Immagini Widefield è richiesta anche per il monitoraggio molecola a lungo termine, al fine di localizzare le molecole diffondenti di interesse, anche se le loro traiettorie coprono l&#39;intero volume delle cellule. In questo protocollo, presentiamo come elettroporazione, una tecnica standard per i biologi e biochimici per la consegna acidi nucleici nelle cellule, costituisce un metodo semplice per la consegna di biomolecole fluorescenti in vari tipi di cellule. Thè romanzo, la tecnica high-throughput offre uno strumento unico per osservare molecole marcate nel loro ambiente nativo. In aggiunta biomolecole marcate con fluorofori che coprono una vasta gamma di lunghezze d&#39;onda, elettroporazione può trasportare molecole modificate con molti gruppi chimici, come i nucleotidi innaturali e aminoacidi, chelanti di metalli, reticolanti, e gruppi di ingabbiamento. Se il sistema biologico che interessa non è essenziale per lo sviluppo delle cellule, il gene codificante per la proteina bersaglio può anche essere eliminato (o smontati), assicurando che le proteine ​​osservati dopo interiorizzazione rappresentano tutti (o quasi) della piscina proteina intracellulare . In sostanza, elettroporazione può &quot;trapianto&quot; la flessibilità di bioconiugati in vitro in cellule viventi e quindi beneficiare sforzi in biologia sintetica, la biologia dei sistemi, e in vivo rilevazione singola molecola.

La maggior parte degli studi di fluorescenza all&#39;interno delle cellule viventi dipendono fusioni di proteine ​​con proteine ​​fluorescenti (PQ), come la GFP 1. Questi tag fluorescenti permettono studi il numero di copie, modello di diffusione o la localizzazione di proteine ​​coinvolte in processi come l&#39;espressione del gene o il trasporto di membrana 2-7. PQ offrono alta specificità etichettatura, facile implementazione, e sono disponibili in una grande inventario di varianti con diversi fotofisiche e chimiche 1. Tuttavia, fluorofori organici rimangono la prima scelta per gli esperimenti in vitro a causa della loro maggiore fotostabilità (fino a 100 volte più stabile rispetto PQ) 8,9, di piccole dimensioni (fino a 100 volte il volume più piccolo di PQ) e la facilità di etichettatura intramolecular (principalmente attraverso l&#39;uso di residui di cisteina). Tutti questi fattori sono particolarmente importanti per la singola molecola fluorescenza e FRET 10 studi. Diversi metodi di internalizzazione combining i vantaggi di etichettatura biologica e nel rilevamento vivo sono state introdotte negli ultimi dieci anni; tuttavia, tali metodi o impiegano polipeptidi relativamente grandi etichette (tag ad esempio, TMP, HALO, o 20 kDa SNAP) 11-14, richiede l&#39;uso di aminoacidi naturali 15, o si limitano a grandi, single-membrana delle cellule eucariotiche (ad es. , raschiare il carico, la siringa di carico, microiniezione) 16-19. Questo protocollo descrive un romanzo, semplice e high-throughput metodo interiorizzazione che le coppie i vantaggi di fluorofori organici con l&#39;osservazione in vivo. Per sviluppare questa tecnica, abbiamo adattato la procedura di elettroporazione comunemente usato per trasformare cellule con DNA plasmidico 20,21 per caricare microrganismi, come E. coli o S. cerevisiae con biomolecole etichettati organicamente. Il protocollo si compone di 4 semplici passi: l&#39;incubazione di cellule con biomolecole marcate,elettroporazione, recupero di cellule, e il lavaggio delle cellule per rimuovere biomolecole non interiorizzato. Qui, vi presentiamo questo protocollo elettroporazione, così come i processi di imaging cellulare e di analisi dei dati per lo studio di fluorescenza delle cellule-based e singola molecola e Fret segnali. Elettroporazione si basa su scaricando un campo elettrico ad alta tensione attraverso una sospensione di cellule forza ionica basso per formare pori della membrana transitori attraverso cui biomolecole possono entrare cellule (Figura 1) 20,21. Come con la trasformazione di batteri o lieviti con DNA plasmidico, le cellule devono essere preparati prima elettroporazione per garantire la loro electrocompetency. Questa procedura, composti di più fasi di lavaggio con acqua, aumenta la permeabilità della membrana e riduce la forza ionica della soluzione cellulare per evitare la formazione di archi nella cuvetta elettroporazione. In questo protocollo, le cellule possono essere preparati come descritto di seguito (Vedi PROTOCOLLO: 1.1) o acquistati dai provider commerciales. <img alt="Figura 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/52208/52208fig1.jpg" /> Figura 1: Rappresentazione schematica del protocollo interiorizzazione Da sinistra a destra:. Aggiungere qualche microlitri di biomolecole etichettati alla aliquota di cellule electrocompetent (frammenti di DNA doppiamente marcati e batteri in questo esempio); incubare 1 a 10 min in ghiaccio e versare in un elettroporazione cuvetta pre-raffreddata; elettroporazione e quindi aggiungere 0,5-1 ml terreno ricco alle cellule immediatamente dopo; incubare a 37 ° C (o la temperatura richiesta dall&#39;organismo, ad esempio, 29 ° C per il lievito) per permettere alle cellule recuperare; effettuare 5 fasi di lavaggio per eliminare ogni-non interiorizzate molecole marcate in eccesso; risospendere il pellet finale in 100-200 ml di tampone PBS e pipetta 10 ml su un pad agarosio; coprire il pad con un coprioggetto pulito e immagine su un microscopio a fluorescenza (in modalità campo largo o modalità HILO). <p class = &quot;jove_content&quot;&gt; celle Electrocompetent vengono incubate con le biomolecole marcate poco prima elettroporazione, che possono essere eseguite utilizzando elettroporatori standard che si trovano nella maggior parte dei laboratori di biochimica. Immediatamente dopo l&#39;elettroporazione, le cellule sono incubate in un terreno ricco permettendo loro recupero prima del lavaggio (Figura 1). L&#39;eccesso di biomolecole etichettati non internalizzati viene prima rimosso mediante lavaggio in un tampone contenente un piuttosto elevata concentrazione di sale e detersivo (Vedere PROTOCOLLO: 3.3). La presenza di sale interrompe non specifici interazioni elettrostatiche formate da biomolecole etichettati non internalizzati che altrimenti potrebbero attaccarsi sulla membrana esterna. Analogamente, la presenza di detersivo nel tampone di lavaggio interrompe non specifiche interazioni idrofobiche. Mentre internalizzazione DNA è semplice (figura 2), le precauzioni devono essere prese quando interiorizzare proteine ​​marcate con elettroporazione. Innanzitutto, il campione di proteina marcata azione biologica potrebbe ancora contenere una piccola percentuale di colorante libero. Molecole di colorante liberi sono molto più piccoli di proteine ​​e possono quindi essere internalizzati preferenzialmente. Per garantire che la stragrande maggioranza delle molecole fluorescenti internalizzati osservati corrispondono alla proteina di interesse, il campione iniziale proteine ​​deve contenere meno di ~ 2% colorante libero (Figura 5) 22. L&#39;eccesso di proteine ​​marcate non internalizzati può anche aderire alla membrana cellulare esterna dopo l&#39;elettroporazione; questo fenomeno è specifico di proteine ​​e deve essere controllata per ogni nuova proteina. Proponiamo diverse opzioni che consentono la rimozione delle proteine ​​non interiorizzato dal campione di cellule caricato (Vedere PROTOCOLLO: 3.3.3). Infine, le cellule sono risospese in un piccolo volume di tampone fosfato e pipettati su un pad agarosio, permettendo loro di imaging su un microscopio a fluorescenza. Immobilizzazione sui rilievi agarosio è un simple e modo efficace di formazione immagine celle su un copri senza danneggiare la loro integrità. Il tampone dovrebbe contenere un terreno di coltura a bassa fluorescenza. L&#39;imaging cellulare può essere effettuata sia in widefield, riflessione interna totale in fluorescenza (TIRF) oppure utilizzando HILO (fortemente inclinato e laminato Sheet Optical) microscopia. Nella configurazione HILO, il raggio laser penetra più profondamente nel campione che in TIRF, ma non illuminare l&#39;intero campione da per widefield, consentendo un maggior rapporto di 23 segnale-rumore. A seconda della risoluzione potenza del laser e l&#39;ora utilizzate, biomolecole internalizzati possono essere contati (mediante analisi stepwise photobleaching, Figura 3), localizzati o tracciati 24-28. Internalizzazione dei costrutti doppiamente etichettati con un paio di FRET fluorofori consente la quantificazione di FRET sia a singola cellula o livelli di singola molecola (Figura 6). Diversi parametri possono essere variatia seconda dell&#39;uscita desiderata e il sistema biologico studiato. In primo luogo, la quantità di materiale internalizzato per cella può essere regolato modificando la concentrazione di biomolecole etichettati aggiunto al cellule prima elettroporazione (Figura 2). Intensità di campo elettroporazione influenzerà anche sia l&#39;efficienza di carico e la vitalità cellulare; come previsto, mentre il rendimento di carico aumenta con l&#39;aumentare intensità di campo, la vitalità delle cellule elettroporate diminuisce (Figura 4A). Entrambi i parametri possono essere quantificate registrando la percentuale di carico e di divisione delle cellule dopo l&#39;elettroporazione. Questo test vitalità accoppiata con imaging di fluorescenza verifica anche l&#39;osservazione di biomolecole internalizzate nelle cellule viventi e lasciare continua osservazione per diverse generazioni (Figura 4B). In sintesi, questo protocollo permette l&#39;internalizzazione delle contrassegnati in modo fluorescente di DNA e proteine ​​in molecoleE. coli o S. CEREVISIAE 26. Molecole individuali marcate con fluorofori organici possono essere monitorati con alta risoluzione spazio-temporale per tempi un ordine di grandezza superiore a PQ. Infine, questo metodo è compatibile con widefield, TIRF e rilevazione confocale, nonché sistemi di eccitazione a impulsi, come ALEX (alternata laser di eccitazione 28,29).

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="834">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:321px;">Name of Material/ Equipment</td>
			<td style="width:227px;">Company</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Catalog Number</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Comments/Description</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="23">
			<td height="23" style="height:23px;width:321px;">ElectroMax DH5-alpha Comptent cells</td>
			<td style="width:227px;">Invitrogen</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">11319-019</td>
			<td>or any other commercial or lab-mage electrocompetant bacteria or yeast.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:321px;">EZ Rich Defined Madia</td>
			<td style="width:227px;">Teknova</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">M2105</td>
			<td>low fluorescence rich media</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">MicroPulser Electroporation Apparatus&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:227px;">Biorad</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">165-2100</td>
			<td>or any classical electroporator for microorganism transformation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Certified Molecular Biology agarose</td>
			<td style="width:227px;">Biorad</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">161-3100</td>
			<td>low fluorescence agarose for agarose pad</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:24px;width:321px;">Microscope coverslips No 1.5 thickness</td>
			<td style="width:227px;">Menzel</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">BB024060SC</td>
			<td>remove background particles by heating slides in furnace at 500 &#176;C for 1h</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:321px;">Single-molecule fluorescence microscope</td>
			<td style="width:227px;">Home-built</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>described in REFs</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:321px;">Localization software</td>
			<td style="width:227px;">Custom-written, available online</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>MATLAB and C++ software package that can be adapted for localization analysis.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:321px;">Tracking software</td>
			<td style="width:227px;">Available online</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td>MATLAB implementation by Blair and Dufresne.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

internalization and observation of fluorescent biomolecules in living microorganisms via electroporation

The ability to study biomolecules in vivo is crucial for understanding their function in a biological context. One powerful approach involves fusing molecules of interest to fluorescent proteins such as GFP to study their expression, localization and function. However, GFP and its derivatives are significantly larger and less photostable than organic fluorophores generally used for in vitro experiments, and this can limit the scope of investigation. 
We recently introduced a straightforward, versatile and high-throughput method based on electroporation, allowing the internalization of biomolecules labeled with organic fluorophores into living microorganisms. Here we describe how to use electroporation to internalize labeled DNA fragments or proteins into Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cerevisi&#230;, how to quantify the number of internalized molecules using fluorescence microscopy, and how to quantify the viability of electroporated cells. Data can be acquired at the single-cell or single-molecule level using fluorescence or FRET. The possibility of internalizing non-labeled molecules that trigger a physiological observable response in vivo is also presented. Finally, strategies of optimization of the protocol for specific biological systems are discussed.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Internalization and Observation of Fluorescent Biomolecules in Living Microorganisms via Electroporation at JoVE.com

Internalization and Observation of Fluorescent Biomolecules in Living Microorganisms via Electroporation

Studies of biomolecules in vivo are crucial for understanding molecular function in a biological context. Here we describe a novel method allowing the internalization of fluorescent biomolecules, such as DNA or proteins, into living microorganisms. Analysis of in vivo data recorded by fluorescence microscopy is also presented and discussed.

Internalizzazione e di osservazione di Fluorescent Biomolecole in Living microrganismi via elettroporazione

The ability to study biomolecules in vivo is crucial for understanding their function in a biological context. One powerful approach involves fusing ...

internalization-observation-fluorescent-biomolecules-living

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

16.7K Views.  University of Oxford. Studies of biomolecules in vivo are crucial for understanding molecular function in a biological context. Here we describe a novel method allowing the internalization of fluorescent biomolecules, such as DNA or proteins, into living microorganisms. Analysis of in vivo data recorded by fluorescence microscopy is also presented and discussed.

Video: Internalization and Observation of Fluorescent Biomolecules in Living Microorganisms via Electroporation

Electroporation of Mycobacteria

High efficiency transformation is a major limitation in the study of mycobacteria. The genus Mycobacterium can be difficult to transform; this is mainly caused by the thick and waxy cell wall, but is compounded by the fact that most molecular techniques have been developed for distantly-related species such as Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis. In spite of these obstacles, mycobacterial plasmids have been identified and DNA transformation of many mycobacterial species have now been described. The most successful method for introducing DNA into mycobacteria is electroporation. Many parameters contribute to successful transformation; these include the species/strain, the nature of the transforming DNA, the selectable marker used, the growth medium, and the  conditions for the electroporation pulse. Optimized methods for the transformation of both slow- and fast-grower are detailed here. Transformation efficiencies for different mycobacterial species and with various selectable markers are reported.

Mycobacterial pathogenic strategies remain poorly understood. The slow growth rate of most species, the impenetrable nature of the cell-wall, and the hazards of working with pathogens make mycobacteria difficult to study and are largely responsible for our poor understanding of these organisms. In this video we will demonstrate the technique of electroporation, which involves subjecting cells to a brief high electrical impulse to allow the entry of DNA. It is the most widely used method for introducing DNA into mycobacterial cells.

Elettroporazione di micobatteri

High efficiency transformation is a major limitation in the study of mycobacteria. The genus Mycobacterium can be difficult to transform; this is mainly ...

Ricerca

Biologia

Live Cell Imaging of F-actin Dynamics via Fluorescent Speckle Microscopy (FSM)

In this protocol we describe the use of Fluorescent Speckle Microscopy (FSM) to capture high-resolution images of actin dynamics in PtK1 cells. A unique advantage of FSM is its ability to capture the movement and turnover kinetics (assembly/disassembly) of the F-actin network within living cells. This technique is particularly useful in deriving quantitative measurements of F-actin dynamics when paired with computer vision software (qFSM).  We describe  the selection, microinjection and visualization of fluorescent actin probes in living cells. Importantly, similar procedures are applicable to visualizing other macomolecular assemblies. FSM has been demonstrated for microtubules, intermediate filaments, and adhesion complexes.  

Live Cell Imaging of F-actin Dynamics via Fluorescent Speckle Microscopy FSM

Selection, microinjection, and imaging of fluorescently-labeled F-actin via fluorescent speckle microscopy (FSM).

Imaging cellulare dal vivo di F-actina Dynamics tramite microscopia a fluorescenza Speckle (FSM)

In this protocol we describe the use of Fluorescent Speckle Microscopy (FSM) to capture high-resolution images of actin dynamics in PtK1 cells. A unique ...

Primary Culture and Plasmid Electroporation of the Murine Organ of Corti. 

In all mammals, the sensory epithelium for audition is located along the spiraling organ of Corti that resides within the conch shaped cochlea of the inner ear (fig 1). Hair cells in the developing cochlea, which are the mechanosensory cells of the auditory system, are aligned in one row of inner hair cells and three (in the base and mid-turns) to four (in the apical turn) rows of outer hair cells that span the length of the organ of Corti. Hair cells transduce sound-induced mechanical vibrations of the basilar membrane into neural impulses that the brain can interpret. Most cases of sensorineural hearing loss are caused by death or dysfunction of cochlear hair cells.
An increasingly essential tool in auditory research is the isolation and in vitro culture of the organ explant 1,2,9. Once isolated, the explants may be utilized in several ways to provide information regarding normative, anomalous, or therapeutic physiology. Gene expression, stereocilia motility, cell and molecular biology, as well as biological approaches for hair cell regeneration are examples of experimental applications of organ of Corti explants.
This protocol describes a method for the isolation and culture of the organ of Corti from neonatal mice. The accompanying video includes stepwise directions for the isolation of the temporal bone from mouse pups, and subsequent isolation of the cochlea, spiral ligament, and organ of Corti. Once isolated, the sensory epithelium can be plated and cultured in vitro in its entirety, or as a further dissected micro-isolate that lacks the spiral limbus and spiral ganglion neurons. Using this method, primary explants can be maintained for 7-10 days. As an example of the utility of this procedure, organ of Corti explants will be electroporated with an exogenous DsRed reporter gene. This method provides an improvement over other published methods because it provides reproducible, unambiguous, and stepwise directions for the isolation, microdissection, and primary culture of the organ of Corti.

Primary Culture and Plasmid Electroporation of the Murine Organ of Corti.

This procedure describes a method for the isolation and culture of the murine organ of Corti with or without the spiral limbus and spiral ganglion neurons. We also demonstrate a method for the expression of an exogenous reporter gene in the organ of Corti explant by electroporation.

Cultura primaria e elettroporazione plasmidi dell&#39;Organo murini di Corti.

In all mammals, the sensory epithelium for audition is located along the spiraling organ of Corti that resides within the conch shaped cochlea of the ...

Imaging Cell Shape Change in Living Drosophila Embryos

The developing Drosophila melanogaster embryo undergoes a number of cell shape changes that are highly amenable to live confocal imaging. Cell shape changes in the fly are analogous to those in higher organisms, and they drive tissue morphogenesis. So, in many cases, their study has direct implications for understanding human disease (Table 1)1-5. On the sub-cellular scale, these cell shape changes are the product of activities ranging from gene expression to signal transduction, cell polarity, cytoskeletal remodeling and membrane trafficking. Thus, the Drosophila embryo provides not only the context to evaluate cell shape changes as they relate to tissue morphogenesis, but also offers a completely physiological environment to study the sub-cellular activities that shape cells.
The protocol described here is designed to image a specific cell shape change called cellularization. Cellularization is a process of dramatic plasma membrane growth, and it ultimately converts the syncytial embryo into the cellular blastoderm. That is, at interphase of mitotic cycle 14, the plasma membrane simultaneously invaginates around each of ~6000 cortically anchored nuclei to generate a sheet of primary epithelial cells. Counter to previous suggestions, cellularization is not driven by Myosin-2 contractility6, but is instead fueled largely by exocytosis of membrane from internal stores7. Thus, cellularization is an excellent system for studying membrane trafficking during cell shape changes that require plasma membrane invagination or expansion, such as cytokinesis or transverse-tubule (T-tubule) morphogenesis in muscle.
Note that this protocol is easily applied to the imaging of other cell shape changes in the fly embryo, and only requires slight adaptations such as changing the stage of embryo collection, or using "embryo glue" to mount the embryo in a specific orientation (Table 1)8-19. In all cases, the workflow is basically the same (Figure 1). Standard methods for cloning and Drosophila transgenesis are used to prepare stable fly stocks that express a protein of interest, fused to Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) or its variants, and these flies provide a renewable source of embryos. Alternatively, fluorescent proteins/probes are directly introduced into fly embryos via straightforward micro-injection techniques9-10. Then, depending on the developmental event and cell shape change to be imaged, embryos are collected and staged by morphology on a dissecting microscope, and finally positioned and mounted for time-lapse imaging on a confocal microscope.

Imaging Cell Shape Change in Living Drosophila Embryos

Early development of the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, is characterized by a number of cell shape changes that are well suited for imaging approaches. This article will describe basic tools and methods required for live confocal imaging of Drosophila embryos, and will focus on a cell shape change called cellularization.

Imaging Forma Modifica cella in Living Drosophila Embrioni

The developing Drosophila melanogaster embryo undergoes a number of cell shape changes that are highly amenable to live confocal imaging.  Cell shape ...

Monitoring of Ubiquitin-proteasome Activity in Living Cells Using a Degron (dgn)-destabilized Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP)-based Reporter Protein

Proteasome is the main intracellular organelle involved in the proteolytic degradation of abnormal, misfolded, damaged or oxidized proteins 1, 2. Maintenance of proteasome activity was implicated in many key cellular processes, like cell's stress response 3, cell cycle regulation and cellular differentiation 4 or in immune system response 5. The dysfunction of the ubiquitin-proteasome system has been related to the development of tumors and neurodegenerative diseases 4, 6. Additionally, a decrease in proteasome activity was found as a feature of cellular senescence and organismal aging 7, 8, 9, 10. Here, we present a method to measure ubiquitin-proteasome activity in living cells using a GFP-dgn fusion protein. To be able to monitor ubiquitin-proteasome activity in living primary cells, complementary DNA constructs coding for a green fluorescent protein (GFP)&#x2013;dgn fusion protein (GFP&#x2013;dgn, unstable) and a variant carrying a frameshift mutation (GFP&#x2013;dgnFS, stable 11) are inserted in lentiviral expression vectors. We prefer this technique over traditional transfection techniques because it guarantees a very high transfection efficiency independent of the cell type or the age of the donor. The difference between fluorescence displayed by the GFP&#x2013;dgnFS (stable) protein and the destabilized protein (GFP-dgn) in the absence or presence of proteasome inhibitor can be used to estimate ubiquitin-proteasome activity in each particular cell strain. These differences can be monitored by epifluorescence microscopy or can be measured by flow cytometry.

Monitoring of Ubiquitin-proteasome Activity in Living Cells Using a Degron dgn-destabilized Green Fluorescent Protein GFP-based Reporter Protein

A method to monitor ubiquitin-proteasome activity in living cells is described. A degron-destabilized GFP- (GFP-dgn) and a stable GFP-dgnFS fusion protein are generated and transduced into the cell using a lentiviral expression vector. This technique allows to generate a stable GFP-dgn/GFP-dgnFS expressing cell line in which ubiquitin-proteasome activity can be easily assessed using epifluorescence or flow cytometry.

Monitoraggio del sistema ubiquitina-proteasoma attività nelle cellule viventi Utilizzando una degron (dgn)-destabilizzato proteina verde fluorescente (GFP) a base di proteine ​​Reporter

Proteasome is the main intracellular organelle involved in the proteolytic degradation of abnormal, misfolded, damaged or oxidized proteins 1, 2. ...

Protein WISDOM: A Workbench for In silico De novo Design of BioMolecules

The aim of de novo protein design is to find the amino acid sequences that will fold into a desired 3-dimensional structure with improvements in specific properties, such as binding affinity, agonist or antagonist behavior, or stability, relative to the native sequence. Protein design lies at the center of current advances drug design and discovery. Not only does protein design provide predictions for potentially useful drug targets, but it also enhances our understanding of the protein folding process and protein-protein interactions. Experimental methods such as directed evolution have shown success in protein design. However, such methods are restricted by the limited sequence space that can be searched tractably. In contrast, computational design strategies allow for the screening of a much larger set of sequences covering a wide variety of properties and functionality. We have developed a range of computational de novo protein design methods capable of tackling several important areas of protein design. These include the design of monomeric proteins for increased stability and complexes for increased binding affinity.
To disseminate these methods for broader use we present Protein WISDOM (<a href="http://www.proteinwisdom.org" target="_blank">http://www.proteinwisdom.org</a>), a tool that provides automated methods for a variety of protein design problems. Structural templates are submitted to initialize the design process. The first stage of design is an optimization sequence selection stage that aims at improving stability through minimization of potential energy in the sequence space. Selected sequences are then run through a fold specificity stage and a binding affinity stage. A rank-ordered list of the sequences for each step of the process, along with relevant designed structures, provides the user with a comprehensive quantitative assessment of the design. Here we provide the details of each design method, as well as several notable experimental successes attained through the use of the methods.

Protein WISDOM: A Workbench for In silico De novo Design of BioMolecules

We developed computational de novo protein design methods capable of tackling several important areas of protein design. To disseminate these methods we present Protein WISDOM, an online tool for protein design (<a href="http://www.proteinwisdom.org" target="_blank">http://www.proteinwisdom.org</a>). Starting from a structural template, design of monomeric proteins for increased stability and complexes for increased binding affinity can be performed.

Proteine ​​saggezza: un banco di lavoro per<em&gt; In silico</em&gt;<em&gt; De novo</em&gt; Progettazione di biomolecole

The aim of de novo protein design is to find the amino acid sequences that will fold into a desired 3-dimensional structure with improvements in specific ...

In Vivo Microinjection and Electroporation of Mouse Testis

This video and article contribution gives a comprehensive description of microinjection and electroporation of mouse testis in vivo. This particular transfection technique for testicular mouse cells allows the study of unique processes in spermatogenesis.
The following protocol focuses on transfection of testicular mouse cells with plasmid constructs. Specifically, we used the reporter vector pEGFP-C1, which expresses enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP) and also the pDsRed2-N1 vector expressing red fluorescent protein (DsRed2). Both encoded reporter genes were under the control of the human cytomegalovirus immediate-early promoter (CMV).
For performing gene transfer into mouse testes, the reporter plasmid constructs are injected into testes of living mice. To that end, the testis of an anaesthetized animal is exposed and the site of microinjection is prepared. Our preferred place of injection is the efferent duct, with the ultimately connected rete testis as the anatomical transport route of the spermatozoa between the testis and the epididymis. In this way, the filling of the seminiferous tubules after microinjection is excellently managed and controlled due to the use of stained DNA solutions. After observing a sufficient filling of the testis by its colored tubule structure, the organ is electroporated. This enables the transfer of the DNA solution into the testicular&#160;cells. Following 3 days of incubation, the testis is removed and investigated under the microscope for green or red&#160;fluorescence, illustrating transfection success.
Generally, this protocol can be employed for delivering DNA- or RNA- constructs into living mouse testis in order to (over)express or knock down genes, facilitating in vivo gene function analysis. Furthermore, it is suitable for studying reporter constructs or putative gene regulatory elements. Thus, the main advantages of the electroporation technique are fast performance in combination with low effort as well as the moderate technical equipment and skills required compared to alternative techniques.

In Vivo Microinjection and Electroporation of Mouse Testis

This article describes microinjection and electroporation of mouse testis in&#160;vivo as a&#160;transfection technique for testicular mouse cells to study unique processes of spermatogenesis. The presented protocol involves steps of glass capillary preparation, microinjection via the efferent duct, and transfection by electroporation.

In Vivo Microiniezione e Elettroporazione di mouse Testicolo

This video and article contribution gives a comprehensive description of microinjection and electroporation of mouse testis in vivo. This particular ...

Tracking Drug-induced Changes in Receptor Post-internalization Trafficking by Colocalizational Analysis

The intracellular trafficking of receptors is a collection of complex and highly controlled processes. Receptor trafficking modulates signaling and overall cell responsiveness to ligands and is, itself, influenced by intra- and extracellular conditions, including ligand-induced signaling. Optimized for use with monolayer-plated cultured cells, but extendable to free-floating tissue slices, this protocol uses immunolabelling and colocalizational analysis to track changes in intracellular receptor trafficking following both chronic/prolonged and acute interventions, including exogenous drug treatment. After drug treatment, cells are double-immunolabelled for the receptor and for markers for the intracellular compartments of interest. Sequential confocal microscopy is then used to capture two-channel photomicrographs of individual cells, which are subjected to computerized colocalizational analysis to yield quantitative colocalization scores. These scores are normalized to permit pooling of independent replicates prior to statistical analysis. Representative photomicrographs may also be processed to generate illustrative figures. Here, we describe a powerful and flexible technique for quantitatively assessing induced receptor trafficking.

Receptor trafficking modulates signaling and cell responsiveness to ligands and is, itself, responsive to cell conditions, including ligand-induced signaling. Here, we describe a powerful and flexible technique for quantitatively assessing drug-induced receptor trafficking using immunolabeling and colocalizational analysis.

Rilevamento delle modifiche droga indotte recettore post-internalizzazione Tratta di Analisi Colocalizational

The intracellular trafficking of receptors is a collection of complex and highly controlled processes. Receptor trafficking modulates signaling and ...

High-resolution Time-lapse Imaging and Automated Analysis of Microtubule Dynamics in Living Human Umbilical Vein Endothelial Cells

The physiological process by which new vasculature forms from existing vasculature requires specific signaling events that trigger morphological changes within individual endothelial cells (ECs). These processes are critical for homeostatic maintenance such as wound healing, and are also crucial in promoting tumor growth and metastasis. EC morphology is defined by the organization of the cytoskeleton, a tightly regulated system of actin and microtubule (MT) dynamics that is known to control EC branching, polarity and directional migration, essential components of angiogenesis. To study MT dynamics, we used high-resolution fluorescence microscopy coupled with computational image analysis of fluorescently-labeled MT plus-ends to investigate MT growth dynamics and the regulation of EC branching morphology and directional migration. Time-lapse imaging of living Human Umbilical Vein Endothelial Cells (HUVECs) was performed following transfection with fluorescently-labeled MT End Binding protein 3 (EB3) and Mitotic Centromere Associated Kinesin (MCAK)-specific cDNA constructs to evaluate effects on MT dynamics. PlusTipTracker software was used to track EB3-labeled MT plus ends in order to measure MT growth speeds and MT growth lifetimes in time-lapse images. This methodology allows for the study of MT dynamics and the identification of how localized regulation of MT dynamics within sub-cellular regions contributes to the angiogenic processes of EC branching and migration.

Protocols for Human Umbilical Vein Endothelial Cell (HUVEC) culture, transient transfection of fluorescently-labeled markers of microtubule growth, live-cell imaging and automated analysis of interphase microtubule growth dynamics are detailed.

Ad alta risoluzione Time-lapse imaging e analisi automatizzata dei microtubuli Dynamics in Living ombelicale umano cellule endoteliali Vena

The physiological process by which new vasculature forms from existing vasculature requires specific signaling events that trigger morphological changes ...

Observation and Quantification of Mating Behavior in the Pinewood Nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus

A method for observing and quantifying the mating behavior of the pinewood nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, was established under a stereomicroscope. To improve the mating efficiency of B. Xylophilus and to increase the chances of mating observation, virgin adults were cultured and used for the investigation. Eggs were obtained by keeping the nematodes in water and allowing the females to lay eggs for 10 min. The second-stage juveniles (J2) were synchronized by incubating the eggs for 24 h at 25 &#176;C in the dark, and the early J4 were obtained by culturing the J2 with grey mold, Botrytis cinerea, for another 52 h. At this time point, most J4 nematodes could be clearly distinguished as being male or female using their genital morphology. The male and female J4 were collected and cultured separately in two different Petri dishes for 24 h to get virgin adult nematodes. A virgin male and a virgin female were paired in a drop of water in the well of a concave slide. The mating behavior was filmed with a video recorder under a stereomicroscope. The whole period of the mating process was 82.8 &#177;3.91 min (mean &#177;SE) and could be divided into 4 different phases: searching, contacting, copulating, and lingering. The mean minutes of duration were 21.8 &#177; 2.0, 28.0 &#177; 1.9, 25.8 &#177; 0.7 and 7.2 &#177; 0.5, respectively. Eleven sub-behaviors were described: cruising, approaching, encountering, touching, hooping, locating, attaching, ejaculating, separating, quiescence, and roaming. Interestingly, obvious intra-sexual competition was observed when one female was grouped with 3 males or one male with 3 females. This protocol is useful and valuable, not only in investigating the mating behavior of B. xylophilus, but also in acting as a reference for ethological studies of other nematodes.

Observation and Quantification of Mating Behavior in the Pinewood Nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus

A protocol for investigating the mating behavior of the pinewood nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, is presented. Behavioral features of B. xylophilus are described in the mating process.

Osservazione e quantificazione di comportamento di accoppiamento nel nematode del pino,<em&gt; Bursaphelenchus xylophilus</em

A method for observing and quantifying the mating behavior of the pinewood nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, was established under a stereomicroscope. ...