Name: controlled photoredox ring-opening polymerization of o-carboxyanhydrides mediated by ni/zn complexes
Uploaded: 2017-11-21T15:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Controlled Photoredox Ring-Opening Polymerization of O-Carboxyanhydrides Mediated by Ni/Zn Complexes at JoVE.com

This work was supported by start-up funding from Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. Q.F. acknowledges support from National Natural Science Foundation of China (21504047), Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province (BK20150834), Nanjing University of Posts and Telecommunications Scientific Foundation NUPTSF (NY214179).

Caution: Please consult all relevant materials safety data sheets (MSDS) before use. Many chemicals used in the synthesis are acutely toxic and carcinogenic. Please use all appropriate safety practices when performing reaction including the use of engineering controls (fume hood and glovebox) and personal protective equipment (safety glasses, gloves, lab coat, full-length pants, closed-toe shoes, blue-light blocking safety goggles). Following procedures involve standard air-free handling techniques in a glove box. All so...

<ol>
	<li>Rezwan, K., Chen, Q. Z., Blaker, J. J., Boccaccini, A. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Biodegradable+and+bioactive+porous+polymer/inorganic+composite+scaffolds+for+bone+tissue+engineering.">Biodegradable and bioactive porous polymer/inorganic composite scaffolds for bone tissue engineering.</a> Biomaterials. 27, 3413-3431 (2006).</li><li>Kataoka, K., Harada, A., Nagasaki, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Block+copolymer+micelles+for+drug+delivery:+design,+characterization+and+biological+significance.">Block copolymer micelles for drug delivery: design, characterization and biological significance.</a> Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 47, 113-131 (2001).</li><li>Nagahata, R., Sano, D., Suzuki, H., Takeuchi, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Microwave-assisted+single-step+synthesis+of+poly+(lactic+acid)+by+direct+polycondensation+of+lactic+acid.">Microwave-assisted single-step synthesis of poly (lactic acid) by direct polycondensation of lactic acid.</a> Macromol. Rapid Commun. 28, 437-442 (2007).</li><li>Albertsson, A. -. C., Varma, I. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Recent+developments+in+ring+opening+polymerization+of+lactones+for+biomedical+applications.">Recent developments in ring opening polymerization of lactones for biomedical applications.</a> Biomacromolecules. 4, 1466-1486 (2003).</li><li>Vert, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Aliphatic+polyesters:+great+degradable+polymers+that+cannot+do+everything.">Aliphatic polyesters: great degradable polymers that cannot do everything.</a> Biomacromolecules. 6, 538-546 (2005).</li><li>Thillayedu Boullay, O., Marchal, E., Martin-Vaca, B., Coss&#237;o, F. P., Bourissou, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+activated+equivalent+of+lactide+toward+organocatalytic+ring-opening+polymerization.">An activated equivalent of lactide toward organocatalytic ring-opening polymerization.</a> J. Am. Chem. Soc. 128, 16442-16443 (2006).</li><li>Thillayedu Boullay, O., Bonduelle, C., Martin-Vaca, B., Bourissou, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Functionalized+polyesters+from+organocatalyzed+ROP+of+gluOCA,+the+O-carboxyanhydride+derived+from+glutamic+acid.">Functionalized polyesters from organocatalyzed ROP of gluOCA, the O-carboxyanhydride derived from glutamic acid.</a> Chem. Commun. , 1786-1788 (2008).</li><li>Pounder, R. J., Fox, D. J., Barker, I. A., Bennison, M. J., Dove, A. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ring-opening+polymerization+of+an+O-carboxyanhydride+monomer+derived+from+L-malic+acid.">Ring-opening polymerization of an O-carboxyanhydride monomer derived from L-malic acid.</a> Polym. Chem. 2, 2204-2212 (2011).</li><li>Zhang, Z., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Facile+functionalization+of+polyesters+through+thiol-yne+chemistry+for+the+design+of+degradable,+cell-penetrating+and+gene+delivery+dual-functional+agents.">Facile functionalization of polyesters through thiol-yne chemistry for the design of degradable, cell-penetrating and gene delivery dual-functional agents.</a> Biomacromolecules. 13, 3456-3462 (2012).</li><li>Lu, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Synthesis+of+water-soluble+poly(&#945;-hydroxy+acids)+from+living+ring-opening+polymerization+of+O-benzyl-l-serine+carboxyanhydrides.">Synthesis of water-soluble poly(&#945;-hydroxy acids) from living ring-opening polymerization of O-benzyl-l-serine carboxyanhydrides.</a> ACS Macro Lett. 1, 441-444 (2012).</li><li>Chen, X., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=New+bio-renewable+polyester+with+rich+side+amino+groups+from+L-lysine+via+controlled+ring-opening+polymerization.">New bio-renewable polyester with rich side amino groups from L-lysine via controlled ring-opening polymerization.</a> Polym. Chem. 5, 6495-6502 (2014).</li><li>Wang, R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Controlled+ring-opening+polymerization+of+O-carboxyanhydrides+Using+a+&#946;-Diiminate+Zinc+Catalyst.">Controlled ring-opening polymerization of O-carboxyanhydrides Using a &#946;-Diiminate Zinc Catalyst.</a> Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. , 13010-13014 (2016).</li><li>Feng, Q., Tong, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Controlled+photoredox+ring-opening+polymerization+of+O-carboxyanhydrides.">Controlled photoredox ring-opening polymerization of O-carboxyanhydrides.</a> J. Am. Chem. Soc. 139, 6177-6182 (2017).</li><li>Martin Vaca, B., Bourissou, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=O-Carboxyanhydrides:+useful+tools+for+the+preparation+of+Well-defined+functionalized+polyesters.">O-Carboxyanhydrides: useful tools for the preparation of Well-defined functionalized polyesters.</a> ACS Macro Lett. 4, 792-798 (2015).</li><li>Yin, Q., Yin, L., Wang, H., Cheng, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Synthesis+and+biomedical+applications+of+functional+poly(alpha-hydroxy+acids)+via+ring-opening+polymerization+of+O-carboxyanhydrides.">Synthesis and biomedical applications of functional poly(alpha-hydroxy acids) via ring-opening polymerization of O-carboxyanhydrides.</a> Acc. Chem. Res. 48, 1777-1787 (2015).</li><li>Xia, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=N-heterocyclic+carbenes+as+organocatalysts+in+controlled/living+ring-opening+polymerization+of+O-carboxyanhydrides+derived+from+l-lactic+acid+and+l-mandelic+acid.">N-heterocyclic carbenes as organocatalysts in controlled/living ring-opening polymerization of O-carboxyanhydrides derived from l-lactic acid and l-mandelic acid.</a> J. Polym. Sci., Part A: Polym. Chem. 52, 2306-2315 (2014).</li><li>Buchard, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Preparation+of+stereoregular+isotactic+poly(mandelic+acid)+through+organocatalytic+ring-opening+polymerization+of+a+cyclic+O-carboxyanhydride.">Preparation of stereoregular isotactic poly(mandelic acid) through organocatalytic ring-opening polymerization of a cyclic O-carboxyanhydride.</a> Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 53, 13858-13861 (2014).</li><li>Zhuang, X. -. l., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Polymerization+of+lactic+O-carboxylic+anhydride+using+organometallic+catalysts.">Polymerization of lactic O-carboxylic anhydride using organometallic catalysts.</a> Chin. J. Polym. Sci. 29, 197-202 (2010).</li><li>He, Z., Jiang, L., Chuan, Y., Li, H., Yuan, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ring-opening+polymerization+of+L-lactic+acid+O-carboxyanhydrides+initiated+by+alkoxy+rare+earth+compounds.">Ring-opening polymerization of L-lactic acid O-carboxyanhydrides initiated by alkoxy rare earth compounds.</a> Molecules. 18, 12768-12776 (2013).</li><li>Jia, F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=One-pot+atom-efficient+synthesis+of+bio-renewable+polyesters+and+cyclic+carbonates+through+tandem+catalysis.">One-pot atom-efficient synthesis of bio-renewable polyesters and cyclic carbonates through tandem catalysis.</a> Chem. Commun. 51, 8504-8507 (2015).</li><li>Tong, R., Cheng, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Drug-initiated,+controlled+ring-opening+polymerization+for+the+synthesis+of+polymer-drug+conjugates.">Drug-initiated, controlled ring-opening polymerization for the synthesis of polymer-drug conjugates.</a> Macromolecules. 45, 2225-2232 (2012).</li><li>Bonduelle, C., Martin-Vaca, B., Bourissou, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Lipase-catalyzed+ring-opening+polymerization+of+the+O-carboxylic+anhydride+derived+from+lactic+acid.">Lipase-catalyzed ring-opening polymerization of the O-carboxylic anhydride derived from lactic acid.</a> Biomacromolecules. 10, 3069-3073 (2009).</li><li>Yamamoto, T., Igarashi, K., Komiya, S., Yamamoto, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Preparation+and+properties+of+phosphine+complexes+of+nickel-containing+cyclic+amides+and+esters+[(PR3)nNiCH2CH(R1)COZ+(Z+=+NR2,+O)].">Preparation and properties of phosphine complexes of nickel-containing cyclic amides and esters [(PR3)nNiCH2CH(R1)COZ (Z = NR2, O)].</a> J. Am. Chem. Soc. 102, 7448-7456 (1980).</li><li>Deming, T. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Amino+acid+derived+nickelacycles:+intermediates+in+nickel-mediated+polypeptide+synthesis.">Amino acid derived nickelacycles: intermediates in nickel-mediated polypeptide synthesis.</a> J. Am. Chem. Soc. 120, 4240-4241 (1998).</li><li>Lee, D. -. Y., Hartwig, J. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Zinc+trimethylsilylamide+as+a+mild+ammonia+equivalent+and+base+for+the+amination+of+aryl+halides+and+triflates.">Zinc trimethylsilylamide as a mild ammonia equivalent and base for the amination of aryl halides and triflates.</a> Org. Lett. 7, 1169-1172 (2005).</li><li>Yin, Q., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Drug-initiated+ring-opening+polymerization+of+O-carboxyanhydrides+for+the+preparation+of+anticancer+drug-poly(O-carboxyanhydride)+nanoconjugates.">Drug-initiated ring-opening polymerization of O-carboxyanhydrides for the preparation of anticancer drug-poly(O-carboxyanhydride) nanoconjugates.</a> Biomacromolecules. 14, 920-929 (2013).</li></ol>

The critical step within the protocol is maintaining the reaction temperature at -15 &#177; 5 &#176;C. All catalysts solutions and OCA monomers have to be stored in a glove box freezer at -35 &#176;C before the polymerization. The reaction vials have to be pre-cooled in the cold trap. During the reaction, because the LED light dissipates heat, it is necessary to monitor the reaction every 15 - 20 minutes. Once the temperature is raised up to -10 &#176;C, liquid nitrogen should be added into the dewar to cool the trap. Th...

Poly(&#945;-hydroxy acid) (PAHA) is an important class of biodegradable and biocompatible polymers with applications ranging from biomedical devices to packaging materials.1,2 Although PAHAs can be prepared directly by polycondensation of &#945;-hydroxy acids, the molecular weights (MWs) of the resulting PAHAs are generally low.3 Ring-opening polymerization (ROP) of lactones (e.g., lactide and glycolide) is an alternative synthetic approach that provides the better control on MWs and molecular weight distribution (&#272;) than polycondensation. However, the lack of side-chain functionality in PAHAs and in lactones limit the diversity of physical and chemical properties and their applications.4,5 Since 2006, 1,3-dioxolane-2,4-diones, so-called O-carboxyanhydrides (OCAs), which can be prepared with a rich variety of side-chain functionalities,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13 have emerged as an alternative class of highly active monomers for polyester polymerization.14,15
Catalytic systems for the ROP of OCAs can be categorized into organocatalysts,8,12,16,17 organometallic catalysts12,18,19,20,21 and biocatalysts.22 Generally, the ROP of OCAs promoted by organocatalyst proceeds in a more or less uncontrolled manner, such as epimerization (i.e., lack of stereoregularity) for OCAs bearing electron-withdrawing groups,8,17 unpredictable MWs, or slow polymerization kinetics.13 To address these problems, an active Zn-alkoxide complex was developed for the ROP of OCAs.12 Well-controlled ROPs were achieved at a low degree of polymerization (DP) without epimerization. However, this Zn-alkoxide catalyst cannot efficiently produce polymers with a high degree of polymerization (DP &#8805; 300).13
We have recently reported a promising approach that greatly improves customizability and efficiency of PAHA synthesis (Figure 1).13 We merge photoredox Ni/Ir catalysts that promote OCA decarboxylation with zinc alkoxide to mediate ring-opening polymerization of OCAs. The use of low temperature (-15 &#176;C) and photoredox Ni/Ir catalysis synergistically accelerates ring-opening and decarboxylation of OCA for chain propagation while avoiding undesired side reactions, e.g., the formation of Ni-carbonyl.23,24 Upon transmetalation with Ni complex the active Zn-alkoxide is located at chain terminus for chain propagation.13
In this protocol, we add fresh prepared (bpy)Ni(COD) (bpy = 2,2&#39;-bipyridyl, COD = 1,5-cyclooctadiene), Zn(HMDS)2 (HMDS = hexamethyldisilazane),25 benzyl alcohol (BnOH) and Ir[dF(CF3)ppy]2(dtbbpy)PF6 (Ir-1, dF(CF3)ppy = 2-(2,4-difluorophenyl)-5-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine, dtbbpy = 4,4&#39;-di-tert-butyl-2,2&#39;-bipyridine) into the monomer l-1 solution26 in a glove box with a cold trap, in the presence of a blue LED light (400-500 nm) and a fan to maintain temperature (Figure 1). The temperature is kept at -15 &#176;C &#177; 5 &#176;C during the polymerization. The conversion of OCA is monitored by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. The resulting polymer MWs and &#272;s is characterized by a gel permeation chromatography (GPC). The homodecoupling 1H NMR study determines whether the obtained polymer is isotactic or not. As most chemicals are highly sensitive to moisture, the detailed video protocol is intended to help new practitioners avoid pitfalls associated with the photoredox ROP of OCAs.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Ni(COD)2</td>
			<td>Strem</td>
			<td>28-0010</td>
			<td>Stored in the glove box freezer.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>2,2&#8242;-bipyridine</td>
			<td>Strem</td>
			<td>07-0290</td>
			<td>Stored in the glove box freezer.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Zn(HMDS)2</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Synthesized following reported procedures.25 Stored in the glove box freezer.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Benzyl alcohol</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>402834</td>
			<td>Stored with 4&#197; molecular sieve</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ir[dF(CF3)ppy]2(dtbbpy)PF6</td>
			<td>Strem</td>
			<td>77-0425</td>
			<td>Stored in the glove box freezer.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>THF</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>34865</td>
			<td>Dried by alumina columns and stored with 4&#197; molecular sieve in the dark bottle in the glove box.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethanol</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>793175</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>GPC with an isocratic pump</td>
			<td>Agilent</td>
			<td>Agilent 1260 series</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dawn Heleos II Light Scatterer</td>
			<td>Wyatt</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Optilab rEX differential refractive index detector</td>
			<td>Wyatt</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Size exclusion columns</td>
			<td>Phenomenex</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass Scintillation Vials - 7 ml</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FTIR spectrometer</td>
			<td>Agilent</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stir bars</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>58948-091</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Balance</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glove box</td>
			<td>Mbraun</td>
			<td>Labstar Pro</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

controlled photoredox ring-opening polymerization of o-carboxyanhydrides mediated by ni/zn complexes

Here, we describe an effective protocol that combines photoredox Ni/Ir catalysis with the use of a Zn-alkoxide for efficient ring-opening polymerization, allowing for the synthesis of isotactic poly(&#945;-hydroxy acids) with expected molecular weights (&#62;140 kDa) and narrow molecular weight distributions (Mw/Mn &#60; 1.1). This ring-opening polymerization is mediated by Ni and Zn complexes in the presence of an alcohol initiator and a photoredox Ir catalyst, irradiated by a blue LED (400 - 500 nm). The polymerization is performed at a low temperature (-15 &#176;C) to avoid undesired side reactions. The complete monomer consumption can be achieved within 4 - 8 hours, providing a polymer close to the expected molecular weight with narrow molecular weight distribution. The resulted number-average molecular weight shows a linear correlation with the degree of polymerization up to 1000. The homodecoupling 1H NMR study confirms that the obtained polymer is isotactic without epimerization. This polymerization reported herein offers a strategy for achieving rapid, controlled O-carboxyanhydrides polymerization to prepare stereoregular poly(&#945;-hydroxy acids) and its copolymers bearing various functional side-chain groups.

The conversion of OCA is monitored by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, as shown in Figure 2. The peak at 1805 cm-1 is assigned as the anhydride bond stretch in OCA; the peak at 1760 cm-1 corresponds to the formation of the ester bond in the polymer. Once the monomer&#39;s peak at 1805 cm-1 completely disappears, the polymerization is finished.
The MW and ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Controlled Photoredox Ring-Opening Polymerization of O-Carboxyanhydrides Mediated by Ni/Zn Complexes at JoVE.com

Controlled Photoredox Ring-Opening Polymerization of O-Carboxyanhydrides Mediated by Ni/Zn Complexes

A protocol for the controlled photoredox ring-opening polymerization of O-carboxyanhydrides mediated by Ni/Zn complexes is presented.

Controlled Photoredox Ring-Opening Polymerization of O-Carboxyanhydrides Mediated by Ni/Zn Complexes

Here, we describe an effective protocol that combines photoredox Ni/Ir catalysis with the use of a Zn-alkoxide for efficient ring-opening polymerization, ...

The overall goal of this experiment is to synthesize high molecular weight poly(alpha-hydroxy acids)with side chain functional groups in a controlled manner. This method can help answer key questions in the polyester synthesis field about controlled synthesis of polyesters from O-carboxyanhydrides. The main advantage of this technique is that the polymerization is highly efficient and does not affect the serial chemistry of the monomer.Demonstrating the procedure will be Quanyou Feng, a postdoc from my laboratory. To begin the procedure, prepare solutions of bipy-nickel(COD)zinc bis(hmds)benzyl alcohol, and the iridium catalyst, an anhydrous THF. Store the solutions minus 35 degrees Celsius.Then, place 72.2 milligrams of recrystallized L1 in a seven milliliter scintillation vial. Dissolve the L1 in 722 microliters of anhydrous THF. Transfer 200 microliters of the L1 solution to another 7 milliliter scintillation vial with the stir bar.Add 100 microliters of anhydrous THF to this vial, and cap the vial. Place the dilute L1 solution in the cold well, along with a thermometer. Turn off the glove box light before proceeding.Add about 500 milliliters of ethanol to the dewar for the cold well. Then, add liquid nitrogen to the dewar. Place the dewar on a stir plate and jack, and raise the dewar to cool the well.Wait for the cold well to reach minus 50 degrees Celsius. Then, obtain a pair of safety goggles that block blue light, and place them within easy reach. Open the vial of chilled L1 solution.Remove the catalyst solutions from the freezer. Over the course of 30 seconds, add to the vial 16.4 microliters of bipy-nickel(COD)24.4 microliters of zinc bis(hmds)22.5 microliters of benzyl alcohol, and 24.2 microliters of the iridium catalyst solution. Cap the vial when finished.Put on the blue light-blocking safety goggles. Then, turn on a 34 watt blue LED light and a small cooling fan. Direct the light towards the vial.Start the stir motor. Cover the light, cooling fan, and cold well with aluminum foil. Monitor the reaction temperature, and add liquid nitrogen every 15 to 20 minutes, to keep the reaction at about minus 15 degrees Celsius.The critical part of this procedure, is to keep the reaction temperature around minus 15 degrees. If the temperature is higher than minus 10 degrees, liquid nitrogen should be added to the dewar. Monitor the monomer conversion with FDIR spectroscopy.Once the desired degree of polymerization has been achieved, dry and wash the polymer with one milliliter of diethyl ether, containing one percent acetic acid, and one milliliter of methanol. The polymerization of phenyl O-carboxyanhydride was monitored by FDIR. The peak, at about 1805 reciprocal centimeters, corresponded to the anhydride bond stretch of L1.As the reaction progressed, the developing peak at 1760 reciprocal centimeters, indicated the formation of the ester bonds in the polymer.The polymerization was finished when the 1805 peak had completely disappeared. Gel permeation chromatography was used to determine the molecular weights and dispersity of a series of L1 polymers with increasing monomer feed ratios. The number average molecular weight increased linearly with initial monomer catalyst ratios.The dispersity values were all below 1.1. Proton NMR spectroscopy was used to evaluate the polymer stereo chemistry. A homodecoupling study showed a single peak at the alpha methine region, indicating that the polymer was isotactic, and therefore no epimerization had occurred.Visual demonstration of this method is critical, as photoredox polymerization at low temperature is difficult to learn without it. Proper reaction setup and temperature control are both critical for controlled polymerization. When it's mastered, this technique can be done within four to six hours if it's performed properly.Remember to wear safety goggles while attempting this procedure. After watching this video, you should have a good understanding of how to perform photoredox ring-opening polymerization.

controlled-photoredox-ring-opening-polymerization-o-carboxyanhydrides

Research

JoVE Journal

Chemistry

Production of Disulfide-stabilized Transmembrane Peptide Complexes for Structural Studies

Physical interactions among the lipid-embedded alpha-helical domains of membrane proteins play a crucial role in folding and assembly of membrane protein complexes and in dynamic processes such as transmembrane (TM) signaling and regulation of cell-surface protein levels. Understanding the structural features driving the association of particular sequences requires sophisticated biophysical and biochemical analyses of TM peptide complexes. However, the extreme hydrophobicity of TM domains makes them very difficult to manipulate using standard peptide chemistry techniques, and production of suitable study material often proves prohibitively challenging. Identifying conditions under which peptides can adopt stable helical conformations and form complexes spontaneously adds a further level of difficulty. Here we present a procedure for the production of homo- or hetero-dimeric TM peptide complexes from materials that are expressed in E. coli, thus allowing incorporation of stable isotope labels for nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) or non-natural amino acids for other applications relatively inexpensively. The key innovation in this method is that TM complexes are produced and purified as covalently associated (disulfide-crosslinked) assemblies that can form stable, stoichiometric and homogeneous structures when reconstituted into detergent, lipid or other membrane-mimetic materials. We also present carefully optimized procedures for expression and purification that are equally applicable whether producing single TM domains or crosslinked complexes and provide advice for adapting these methods to new TM sequences.

Biophysical and biochemical studies of interactions among membrane-embedded protein domains face many technical challenges, the first of which is obtaining appropriate study material. This article describes a protocol for producing and purifying disulfide-stabilized transmembrane peptide complexes that are suitable for structural analysis by solution nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and other analytical applications.

Physical  interactions among the lipid-embedded alpha-helical domains of membrane  proteins play a crucial role in folding and assembly of membrane ...

Anticancer Metal Complexes: Synthesis and Cytotoxicity Evaluation by the MTT Assay

Titanium (IV) and vanadium (V) complexes are highly potent anticancer agents. A challenge in their synthesis refers to their hydrolytic instability; therefore their preparation should be conducted under an inert atmosphere. Evaluation of the anticancer activity of these complexes can be achieved by the MTT assay.
The MTT assay is a colorimetric viability assay based on enzymatic reduction of the MTT molecule to formazan when it is exposed to viable cells. The outcome of the reduction is a color change of the MTT molecule. Absorbance measurements relative to a control determine the percentage of remaining viable cancer cells following their treatment with varying concentrations of a tested compound, which is translated to the compound anticancer activity and its IC50 values. The MTT assay is widely common in cytotoxicity studies due to its accuracy, rapidity, and relative simplicity.
Herein we present a detailed protocol for the synthesis of air sensitive metal based drugs and cell viability measurements, including preparation of the cell plates, incubation of the compounds with the cells, viability measurements using the MTT assay, and determination of IC50 values.

A method for synthesis of air-sensitive titanium and vanadium anticancer agents is described, along with the evaluation of their cytotoxic activity towards human cancer cell line by the MTT Assay.

Titanium (IV) and vanadium (V) complexes are highly potent anticancer agents. A challenge in their synthesis refers to their hydrolytic instability; ...

Facile and Efficient Preparation of Tri-component Fluorescent Glycopolymers via RAFT-controlled Polymerization

Synthetic glycopolymers are instrumental and versatile tools used in various biochemical and biomedical research fields. An example of a facile and efficient synthesis of well-controlled fluorescent statistical glycopolymers using reversible addition-fragmentation chain-transfer (RAFT)-based polymerization is demonstrated. The synthesis starts with the preparation of &#946;-galactose-containing glycomonomer 2-lactobionamidoethyl methacrylamide obtained by reaction of lactobionolactone and N-(2-aminoethyl) methacrylamide (AEMA). 2-Gluconamidoethyl methacrylamide (GAEMA) is used as a structural analog lacking a terminal &#946;-galactoside. The following RAFT-mediated copolymerization reaction involves three different monomers: N-(2-hydroxyethyl) acrylamide as spacer, AEMA as target for further fluorescence labeling, and the glycomonomers. Tolerant of aqueous systems, the RAFT agent used in the reaction is (4-cyanopentanoic acid)-4-dithiobenzoate. Low dispersities (&#8804;1.32), predictable copolymer compositions, and high reproducibility of the polymerizations were observed among the products. Fluorescent polymers are obtained by modifying the glycopolymers with carboxyfluorescein succinimidyl ester targeting the primary amine functional groups on AEMA. Lectin-binding specificities of the resulting glycopolymers are verified by testing with corresponding agarose beads coated with specific glycoepitope recognizing lectins. Because of the ease of the synthesis, the tight control of the product compositions and the good reproducibility of the reaction, this protocol can be translated towards preparation of other RAFT-based glycopolymers with specific structures and compositions, as desired.

An efficient, three-step synthesis of RAFT-based fluorescent glycopolymers, consisting of glycomonomer preparation, copolymerization, and post-modification, is demonstrated. This protocol can be used to prepare RAFT-based statistical glycopolymers with desired structures.

Synthetic glycopolymers are instrumental and versatile tools used in various biochemical and biomedical research fields. An example of a facile and ...

Atom Transfer Radical Polymerization of Functionalized Vinyl Monomers Using Perylene as a Visible Light Photocatalyst

A standardized technique for atom transfer radical polymerization of vinyl monomers using perylene as a visible-light photocatalyst is presented. The procedure is performed under an inert atmosphere using air- and water-exclusion techniques. The outcome of the polymerization is affected by the ratios of monomer, initiator, and catalyst used as well as the reaction concentration, solvent, and nature of the light source. Temporal control over the polymerization can be exercised by turning the visible light source off and on. Low dispersities of the resultant polymers as well as the ability to chain-extend to form block copolymers suggest control over the polymerization, while chain end-group analysis provides evidence supporting an atom-transfer radical polymerization mechanism.

A method for the atom transfer radical polymerization of functionalized vinyl monomers using perylene as a visible-light photocatalyst is described.

A standardized technique for atom transfer radical polymerization of vinyl monomers using perylene as a visible-light photocatalyst is presented. The ...

Facile Synthesis of Worm-like Micelles by Visible Light Mediated Dispersion Polymerization Using Photoredox Catalyst

Presented herein is a protocol for the facile synthesis of worm-like micelles by visible light mediated dispersion polymerization. This approach begins with the synthesis of a hydrophilic poly(oligo(ethylene glycol) methyl ether methacrylate) (POEGMA) homopolymer using reversible addition-fragmentation chain-transfer (RAFT) polymerization. Under mild visible light irradiation (&#955; = 460 nm, 0.7 mW/cm2), this macro-chain transfer agent (macro-CTA) in the presence of a ruthenium based photoredox catalyst, Ru(bpy)3Cl2 can be chain extended with a second monomer to form a well-defined block copolymer in a process known as Photoinduced Electron Transfer RAFT (PET-RAFT). When PET-RAFT is used to chain extend POEGMA with benzyl methacrylate (BzMA) in ethanol (EtOH), polymeric nanoparticles with different morphologies are formed in situ according to a polymerization-induced self-assembly (PISA) mechanism. Self-assembly into nanoparticles presenting POEGMA chains at the corona and poly(benzyl methacrylate) (PBzMA) chains in the core occurs in situ due to the growing insolubility of the PBzMA block in ethanol. Interestingly, the formation of highly pure worm-like micelles can be readily monitored by observing the onset of a highly viscous gel in situ due to nanoparticle entanglements occurring during the polymerization. This process thereby allows for a more reproducible synthesis of worm-like micelles simply by monitoring the solution viscosity during the course of the polymerization. In addition, the light stimulus can be intermittently applied in an ON/OFF manner demonstrating temporal control over the nanoparticle morphology.

This article describes a process for producing polymeric self-assembled nanoparticles using visible light mediated dispersion polymerization. Using low energy visible light to control the polymerization allows for the reproducible formation of self-assembled worm-like micelles at high solids content.

Presented herein is a protocol for the facile synthesis of worm-like micelles by visible light mediated dispersion polymerization. This approach begins ...

Anionic Polymerization of an Amphiphilic Copolymer for Preparation of Block Copolymer Micelles Stabilized by &#960;-&#960; Stacking Interactions

In this study, an amphiphilic copolymer that includes a core-forming block with phenyl groups was synthesized by living anionic polymerization of phenyl glycidyl ether (PheGE) on methoxy-polyethylene glycol (mPEG-b-PPheGE). Characterization of the copolymer revealed a narrow molecular distribution (PDI &#60; 1.03) and confirmed the degree of polymerization of mPEG122-b-(PheGE)15. The critical micelle concentration of the copolymer was evaluated using an established fluorescence method with the aggregation behavior evaluated by dynamic light scattering and transmission electronic microscopy. The potential of the copolymer for use in drug delivery applications was evaluated in a preliminary manner including in vitro biocompatibility, loading and release of the hydrophobic anti-cancer drug doxorubicin (DOX). A stable micelle formulation of DOX was prepared with drug loading levels up to 14% (wt%), drug loading efficiencies &#62; 60% (w/w) and sustained release of drug over 4 days under physiologically relevant conditions (acidic and neutral pH, presence of albumin). The high drug loading level and sustained release is attributed to stabilizing &#960;-&#960; interactions between DOX and the core-forming block of the micelles.

The key steps of living anionic polymerization of phenyl glycidyl ether (PheGE) on methoxy-polyethylene glycol (mPEG-b-PPheGE) are described. The resulting block copolymer micelles (BCMs) were loaded with doxorubicin 14% (wt%) and sustained release of drug over 4 days under physiologically relevant conditions was obtained.

In this study, an amphiphilic copolymer that includes a core-forming block with phenyl groups was synthesized by living anionic polymerization of phenyl ...

A Simple and Efficient Protocol for the Catalytic Insertion Polymerization of Functional Norbornenes

Norbornene can be polymerized by a variety of mechanisms, including insertion polymerization whereby the double bond is polymerized and the bicyclic nature of the monomer is conserved. The resulting polymer, polynorbornene, has a very high glass transition temperature, Tg, and interesting optical and electrical properties. However, the polymerization of functional norbornenes by this mechanism is complicated by the fact that the endo substituted norbornene monomer has, in general, a very low reactivity. Furthermore, the separation of the endo substituted monomer from the exo monomer is a tedious task. Here, we present a simple protocol for the polymerization of substituted norbornenes (endo:exo ca. 80:20) bearing either a carboxylic acid or a pendant double bond. The process does not require that both isomers be separated, and proceeds with low catalyst loadings (0.01 to 0.02 mol%). The polymer bearing pendant double bonds can be further transformed in high yield, to afford a polymer bearing pendant epoxy groups. These simple procedures can be applied to prepare polynorbornenes with a variety of functional groups, such as esters, alcohols, imides, double bonds, carboxylic acids, bromo-alkyls, aldehydes and anhydrides.

We describe the catalytic insertion polymerization of 5-norbornene-2-carboxylic acid and 5-vinyl-2-norbornene to form functional polymers with a very high glass transition temperature.

Norbornene can be polymerized by a variety of mechanisms, including insertion polymerization whereby the double bond is polymerized and the bicyclic ...

Extraction of Ramie Fiber in Alkali Hydrogen Peroxide System Supported by Controlled-release Alkali Source

This protocol demonstrates a method for ramie fiber extraction by scouring raw ramie in an alkali hydrogen peroxide system supported by a controlled-release alkali source. The fiber extracted from ramie is a type of textile material of great importance. In previous studies, ramie fiber was extracted in an alkali hydrogen peroxide system supported only by sodium hydroxide.However, due to the strong alkalinity of sodium hydroxide, the oxidation reaction speed of hydrogen peroxide was difficult to control and thus resulted in great damage to the treated fiber. In this protocol, a controlled-release alkali source, which is composed of sodium hydroxide and magnesium hydroxide, is used to provide an alkali condition and buffer the pH value of the alkali hydrogen peroxidesystem. The substitution rate of magnesium hydroxide can adjust the pH value of the hydrogen peroxide system and has great influence on the fiber properties. The pH value and oxidation-reduction potential (ORP) value, which represents the oxidation ability of alkali hydrogen peroxide system, were monitored using a pH meter and ORP meter, respectively. The residual hydrogen peroxide content in the alkali hydrogen peroxide system during the extraction process and the chemical oxygen demand (COD) value of wastewater after fiber extraction are tested by KMnO4 titration method. The yield of fiber is measured using a precision electronic balance, and residual gums of fiber are tested by a chemical analysis method. The polymerization degree (PD value) of fiber is tested by an intrinsic viscosity method using the Ubbelohde viscometer. The tensile property of fiber, including tenacity, elongation, and rupture, is measured using a fiber strength instrument. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction are used to characterize the functional groups and crystal property of fiber. This protocol proves that the controlled-release alkali source can improve the properties of the fiber extracted in an alkali hydrogen peroxide system.

Presented here is a protocol for extraction of ramie fiber in alkali hydrogen peroxide system supported by controlled-release alkali source.

This protocol demonstrates a method for ramie fiber extraction by scouring raw ramie in an alkali hydrogen peroxide system supported by a ...

Preparation of Hollow Polystyrene Particles and Microcapsules by Radical Polymerization of Janus Droplets Consisting of Hydrocarbon and Fluorocarbon Oils

In this article, we have demonstrated a method for producing hollow particles and microcapsules using oil droplets consisting of hydrocarbon oil (styrene) and fluorocarbon oil (perfluoro-n-octane, PFO) in aqueous surfactant (sodium dodecylsulfate, SDS) solutions. Since fluorocarbon oils are immiscible with hydrocarbon oils, the two oils are separated. Emulsions are prepared by stirring styrene/PFO/aqueous SDS solution mixtures at 80 &#176;C. The type of emulsions and the morphology of droplets in the emulsions are observed by light microscope and scanning confocal fluorescence microscope. It is found that oil droplets with Janus-type morphologies consisting of mutually immiscible styrene and PFO are formed in aqueous SDS solutions. Polystyrene particles are fabricated by radical polymerization of the ternary mixtures of styrene/PFO/aqueous SDS solution at 80 &#176;C. The morphologies of the polystyrene are confirmed by scanning electron microscopy and scanning transmission electron microscopy observations. These observations show the preparation of hollow polystyrene particles with a single hole on the surface. To our knowledge, this method is a novel strategy using the immiscibility of hydrocarbon and fluorocarbon oils. The hollow particles can also be applied to the preparation of microcapsules.

A protocol for the fabrication of hollow polymer particles and microcapsules by radical polymerization using emulsions consisting of styrene, perfluoro-n-octane, and aqueous SDS (sodium dodecylsulfate) solution is presented.

In this article, we have demonstrated a method for producing hollow particles and microcapsules using oil droplets consisting of hydrocarbon oil (styrene) ...

Preparation of Stable Bicyclic Aziridinium Ions and Their Ring-Opening for the Synthesis of Azaheterocycles

Bicyclic aziridinium ions were generated by the removal of an appropriate leaving group through internal nucleophilic attack by nitrogen atom in the aziridine ring. The utility of bicyclic aziridinium ions, specifically 1-azoniabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane and 1-azoniabicyclo[4.1.0]heptane tosylate highlighted in the aziridine ring openings by the nucleophile with the release of the ring strain to yield the corresponding ring-expanded azaheterocycles such as pyrrolidine, piperidine and azepane with diverse substituents on the ring in regio- and stereospecific manner. Herein, we report a simple and convenient method for the preparation of the stable 1-azabicyclo[4.1.0]heptane tosylate followed by selective ring opening via a nucleophilic attack either at the bridge or at the bridgehead carbon to yield piperidine and azepane rings, respectively. This synthetic strategy allowed us to prepare biologically active natural products containing piperidine and azepane motif including sedamine, allosedamine, fagomine and balanol in highly efficient manner.

Bicyclic aziridinium ions such as 1-azoniabicyclo[4.1.0]heptane tosylate were generated from 2-[4-tolenesulfonyloxybutyl]aziridine, which was utilized for the preparation of substituted piperidines and azepanes via regio- and stereospecific ring-expansion with various nucleophiles. This highly efficient protocol allowed us to prepare diverse azaheterocycles including natural products such as fagomine, febrifugine analogue and balanol.

Bicyclic aziridinium ions were generated by the removal of an appropriate leaving group through internal nucleophilic attack by nitrogen atom in the ...