Name: simultaneous visualization of the dynamics of crosslinked and single microtubules in vitro by tirf microscopy
Uploaded: 2022-02-18T14:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Simultaneous Visualization of the Dynamics of Crosslinked and Single Microtubules In Vitro by TIRF Microscopy at JoVE.com

This work was supported by a grant from the NIH (no. 1DP2GM126894-01), and by funds from the Pew Charitable Trusts and the Smith Family Foundation to R.S. The authors thank Dr. Shuo Jiang for his contribution toward development and optimization of the protocols.

1. Prepare reagents
<ol>
	<li>Prepare buffers and reagents as outlined in Table 1 and Table 2. During the experiment, keep all solutions on ice, unless otherwise noted.</li>
</ol>
<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Solution</td>
			<td colspan="2">Components</td>
			<td>Recommended Storage Duration</td>
			<td colspan="2">Notes</stro...

<ol>
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A., Surrey, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+minimal+midzone+protein+module+controls+formation+and+length+of+antiparallel+microtubule+overlaps.">A minimal midzone protein module controls formation and length of antiparallel microtubule overlaps.</a> Cell. 142 (3), 420-432 (2010).</li><li>Shimamoto, Y., Forth, S., Kapoor, T. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Measuring+pushing+and+braking+forces+generated+by+ensembles+of+Kinesin-5+crosslinking+two+microtubules.">Measuring pushing and braking forces generated by ensembles of Kinesin-5 crosslinking two microtubules.</a> Developmental Cell. 34 (6), 669-681 (2015).</li><li>Mani, N., Jiang, S., Neary, A. E., Wijeratne, S. 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The experiment described here significantly expands the scope and complexity of conventional microtubule reconstitution assays, which are traditionally performed on single microtubules or on one type of array. The current assay provides a method to simultaneously quantify and compare the regulatory MAP activity on two populations, namely, single microtubules and crosslinked bundles. Further, this assay allows for the examination of two types of bundles: those that are pre-formed from stable seeds before the initiation of...

Microtubules are biopolymers that form structural scaffolds essential for multiple cellular processes, ranging from intracellular transport and organelle positioning to cell division and elongation. To execute these diverse functions, individual microtubules are organized into micron-sized arrays, such as mitotic spindles, ciliary axonemes, neuronal bundles, interphase arrays, and plant cortical arrays. A ubiquitous architectural motif found in these structures is a bundle of microtubules crosslinked along their lengths1. An intriguing feature of several microtubule-based structures is the coexistence of bundled microtubules and non-crosslinked single microtubules in close spatial proximity. These microtubule subpopulations can display starkly different polymerization dynamics from each other, as needed for their proper function2,3,4,5. For instance, within the mitotic spindle, stable crosslinked bundles and dynamic single microtubules are present within a micron-scale region at the cell center6. Studying how the dynamic properties of coexisting microtubule populations are specified is, therefore, central to understanding the assembly and function of microtubule-based structures.
Microtubules are dynamic polymers that cycle between phases of polymerization and depolymerization, switching between the two phases in events known as catastrophe and rescue7. The dynamics of cellular microtubules are regulated by myriad Microtubule Associated Proteins (MAPs) that modulate the rates of microtubule polymerization and depolymerization and the frequencies of catastrophe and rescue events. It is challenging to investigate the activity of MAPs on spatially proximal arrays in cells, owing to the limitations of spatial resolution in light microscopy, especially in regions of high microtubule density. Moreover, the presence of multiple MAPs in the same cellular region hinders interpretations of cell biological studies. In vitro reconstitution assays, performed in conjunction with Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy, circumvent the challenges of examining mechanisms by which specific subsets of MAPs regulate the dynamics of proximal cellular microtubule arrays. Here, the dynamics of microtubules assembled in vitro are examined in the presence of one or more recombinant MAPs under controlled conditions8,9,10. However, conventional reconstitution assays are typically performed on single microtubules or on one type of array, precluding the visualization of coexisting populations.
Here, we present&#160;in vitro reconstitution assays that enable the simultaneous visualization of two microtubule populations under the same solution conditions11. We describe a&#160;method to simultaneously view the collective activity of multiple MAPs on single microtubules&#160;and on microtubule bundles crosslinked by the mitotic spindle-associated protein PRC1.&#160;The protein PRC1 preferentially binds at the overlap between anti-parallel microtubules, crosslinking them9. Briefly, this protocol consists of the following steps: (i) preparation of stock solutions and reagents, (ii) cleaning and surface treatment of coverslips used to create the imaging chamber for microscopy experiments, (iii) preparation of stable microtubule &#34;seeds&#34; from which polymerization is initiated during the experiment, (iv) specification of TIRF microscope settings to visualize microtubule dynamics, (v) immobilization of microtubule seeds and generation of crosslinked microtubule bundles in the imaging chamber, and (vi) visualization of microtubule dynamics in the imaging chamber through TIRF microscopy, upon addition of soluble tubulin, MAPs, and nucleotides. These assays enable the qualitative evaluation and quantitative examination of MAP localization and their effect on the dynamics of two microtubule populations. Additionally, they facilitate the evaluation of synergistic effects of multiple MAPs on these microtubule populations, across a wide range of experimental conditions.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr >
			<td >(&#177;)-6-Hydroxy-2,5,7,8-tetramethylchromane-2-carboxylic acid (Trolox)</td>
			<td >Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td >238813</td>
			<td ></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >1,4-piperazinediethanesulfonic acid (PIPES)</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>P6757</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >18x18 mm #1.5 coverslips&#160;</td>
			<td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td>
			<td>63787</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >2-Mercaptoethanol (BME)</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>M-6250</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >24x60 mm #1.5 coverslips</td>
			<td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td>
			<td>63793</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >405/488/560/647 nm Laser Quad Band&#160;</td>
			<td>Chroma</td>
			<td>TRF89901-NK</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Acetone</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>320110</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Adenosine 5&#39;-triphosphate disodium salt hydrate (ATP)</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>A7699-5G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Avidin, NeutrAvidin&#174; Biotin-binding Protein (Molecular Probes&#174;)</td>
			<td>Thermo Fischer Scientific</td>
			<td>A2666</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Bath sonicator: Branson 2800 Cleaner</td>
			<td>Branson</td>
			<td>CPX2800H</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Beckman Coulter Polycarbonate Thickwall Tubes, 11 x 34 mm</td>
			<td>Beckman-Coulter&#160;</td>
			<td>343778</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Beckman Coulter Polycarbonate Thickwall Tubes, 8 x 34 mm</td>
			<td>Beckman-Coulter&#160;</td>
			<td>343776</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Biotin-PEG-SVA, MW 5,000</td>
			<td>Laysan Bio</td>
			<td>#Biotin-PEG-SVA-5000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA)</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>2905</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Catalase</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>C40</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Corning LSE Mini Microcentrifuge, AC100-240V</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>6670</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Delicate Task Wipes</td>
			<td>Kimtech</td>
			<td>34120</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Dithiothreitol (DTT)</td>
			<td>GoldBio</td>
			<td>DTT10</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Emission filter</td>
			<td>Chroma</td>
			<td>ET610/75m</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Ethanol (200-proof)</td>
			<td>Decon Labs</td>
			<td>2705</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Ethylene glycol tetraacetic acid (EGTA)</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>3777</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Glucose Oxidase</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>G2133</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >GMPCPP</td>
			<td>Jena Bioscience&#160;</td>
			<td>NU-405</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Guanosine 5&#39;-triphosphate sodium salt hydrate (GTP)</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>G8877</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Hellmanex III detergent&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>Z805939</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Immersion oil, Type A</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>77010</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Kappa-casein</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>C0406</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Lanolin</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>S25376</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Lens Cleaning Tissue</td>
			<td>ThorLabs</td>
			<td>MC-5</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Magnesium Chloride (MgCl2)</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>M9272</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Methylcellulose</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>M0512</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Microfuge 16 Benchtop Centrifuge</td>
			<td>Beckman-Coulter&#160;</td>
			<td>A46474</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Microscope Slides, Diamond White Glass, 25 x 75mm, 90&#176; Ground Edges, WHITE Frosted</td>
			<td>Globe Scientific</td>
			<td>1380-50W</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >mPEG-Succinimidyl Valerate, MW 5,000&#160;</td>
			<td>Laysan Bio</td>
			<td>#NH2-PEG-VA-5K</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Optima&#8482; Max-XP Tabletop Ultracentrifuge</td>
			<td>Beckman-Coulter&#160;</td>
			<td>393315</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Paraffin</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>P31-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >PELCO Reverse (self-closing), Fine Tweezers</td>
			<td>Ted Pella</td>
			<td>5377-NM</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Petrolatum, White</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>18-605-050</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Plasma Cleaner, 115V</td>
			<td>Harrick Plasma</td>
			<td>PDC-001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Potassium Hydroxide (KOH)</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>221473</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Sodium bicarbonate</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>S6014</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Sucrose</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>S7903</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Thermal-Lok 1-Position Dry Heat Bath</td>
			<td>USA Scientific</td>
			<td>2510-1101</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Thermal-Lok Block for 1.5 and 2.0 mL Tubes</td>
			<td>USA Scientific</td>
			<td>2520-0000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Thermo Scientific&#8482; Pierce&#8482; Bond-Breaker&#8482; TCEP Solution, Neutral pH; 500mM</td>
			<td>Thermo Fischer Scientific</td>
			<td>PI-77720</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >TIRF 100X NA 1.49 Oil Objective</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td colspan="2">CFI Apochromat TIRF 100XC Oil</td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >TIRF microscope</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td>Eclipse Ti</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >TLA 120.1 rotor</td>
			<td>Beckman-Coulter&#160;</td>
			<td>362224</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >TLA 120.2 rotor</td>
			<td>Beckman-Coulter&#160;</td>
			<td>357656</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Tubulin protein (&#62;99% pure): porcine brain</td>
			<td>Cytoskeleton</td>
			<td>T240</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Tubulin Protein (Biotin): Porcine Brain</td>
			<td>Cytoskeleton</td>
			<td>T333P</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Tubulin protein (fluorescent HiLyte 647): porcine brain</td>
			<td>Cytoskeleton</td>
			<td>TL670M</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >Tubulin protein (X-rhodamine): bovine brain</td>
			<td>Cytoskeleton</td>
			<td>TL620M</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >VECTABOND&#174; Reagent, Tissue Section Adhesion</td>
			<td>Vector Biolabs</td>
			<td>SP-1800-7</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr >
			<td >VWR&#174; Personal-Sized Incubator, 120V, 50/60Hz, 0.6A</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>97025-630</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

simultaneous visualization of the dynamics of crosslinked and single microtubules in vitro by tirf microscopy

Microtubules are polymers of &#945;&#946;-tubulin heterodimers that organize into distinct structures in cells. Microtubule-based architectures and networks often contain subsets of microtubule arrays that differ in their dynamic properties. For example, in dividing cells, stable bundles of crosslinked microtubules coexist in close proximity to dynamic non-crosslinked microtubules. TIRF-microscopy-based in vitro reconstitution studies enable the simultaneous visualization of the dynamics of these different microtubule arrays. In this assay, an imaging chamber is assembled with surface-immobilized microtubules, which are either present as single filaments or organized into crosslinked&#160;bundles. Introduction of tubulin, nucleotides, and protein regulators allows direct visualization of associated proteins and of dynamic properties of single and crosslinked microtubules. Furthermore, changes that occur as dynamic single microtubules organize into bundles can be monitored in real-time. The method described here allows for a systematic evaluation of the activity and localization of individual proteins, as well as synergistic effects of protein regulators on two different microtubule subsets under identical experimental conditions, thereby providing mechanistic insights that are inaccessible by other methods.

The experiment described above was performed using 647 nm fluorophore-labeled biotinylated microtubules, 560 nm fluorophore-labeled non-biotinylated microtubules, and 560 nm fluorophore-labeled soluble tubulin mix. Microtubules were crosslinked by the crosslinker protein PRC1 (GFP-labeled). After surface-immobilized bundles and single microtubules were generated (step 5.11), the imaging chamber was mounted on a TIRF 100X 1.49 NA oil objective and viewed in the 560 nm and 647 nm fluorescence channels. Single microtubules ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Simultaneous Visualization of the Dynamics of Crosslinked and Single Microtubules In Vitro by TIRF Microscopy at JoVE.com

Simultaneous Visualization of the Dynamics of Crosslinked and Single Microtubules In Vitro by TIRF Microscopy

Here, a TIRF microscopy-based in vitro reconstitution assay is presented to simultaneously quantify and compare the dynamics of two microtubule populations. A method is described to simultaneously view the collective activity of multiple microtubule-associated proteins on crosslinked microtubule bundles and single microtubules.

Simultaneous Visualization of the Dynamics of Crosslinked and Single Microtubules In Vitro by TIRF Microscopy

Microtubules are polymers of &#945;&#946;-tubulin heterodimers that organize into distinct structures in cells. Microtubule-based architectures and ...

Cellular microtubule arrays contains subpopulations of microtubules with distinct dynamic properties as required for function. This protocol addresses how the collective activity of regulators bestows proximal microtubule subpopulations with distinct properties. This bottom-up restitution assay enables us to simultaneously visualize the organization and dynamics of proximal microtubule populations such as single microtubules and bundles, and to decipher the mechanisms underlying their self-organization.Multi-component reconstitution require optimizing experimental parameters like pH, ionic strength, and protein concentration while preserving the activity of each. Systematic analysis of individual components prior to multi-protein assays is extremely helpful. To begin, pipette a mixture of 4.5 microliters of BRB ADDTT in one microliter of microtubule solution onto a microscope slide.Cover with an 18 by 18 millimeter coverslip and seal the edges with either clear nail polish or VALAP sealant. Position the TIRF objective beneath the coverslip. Visualize the newly polymerized microtubules at a wavelength appropriate for the fluorescently labeled tubulin in the bright mix to determine what dilution of microtubules to use in the upcoming experiments.Determine the laser intensity for the experiment empirically such that all fluorescent proteins are illuminated, but do not undergo significant photobleaching over the time course of the experiment. Set the microscope temperature to 28 degrees Celsius to view dynamic microtubules. Use lens paper to clean a 100X objective with 70%ethanol.Use the best combination of filter cubes and emission filters depending on the fluorescent channels to be imaged. Set up the imaging sequence. For an experiment with 647 nanometer fluorophore-labeled biotinylated microtubules, 560 nanometer fluorophore-labeled non-biotinylated microtubules in soluble tubulin, and GFP-labeled protein of interest, image the 488 nanometer, 560 nanometer, and 647 nanometer channels every 10 seconds for 20 any minutes.To capture a reference image of bundles before the addition of soluble tubulin and microtubule-associated protein, set up a sequence with one image each in 560 nanometer and 647 nanometer wavelength channels. Check the position of laser beam on the ceiling above microscope and make changes to beam using software. Ensure that the laser illuminator is aligned.Prior to imaging, add a drop of microscope immersion oil to the objective. Prepare the soluble tubulin mixture while keeping it on ice and spin down the mixture. To immobilize microtubules via biotin-NeutrAvidin-biotin linkage, first flow in approximately 7.5 microliters of NeutrAvidin solution until the chamber is filled and incubate for five minutes.Wash with 10 microliters of MB cold. Flow in 7.5 microliters of the blocking protein KC and incubate for two minutes. Wash with 10 microliters of MB warm to prepare the chamber for the introduction of microtubules.Dilute the stock of biotinylated microtubules in BRB ADDTT and add one microliter of this dilution to nine microliters of MB warm. Flow the mixture into the chamber and incubate for 10 minutes. Wash away non-immobilized microtubules with 10 microliters of MB warm.Flow 7.5 microliters of warm KC into the chamber and incubate for two minutes. During the incubation, prepare a two nanomolar solution of the crosslink or protein PRC1 in KC and spin down the solution. Flow 10 microliters of this solution into the imaging chamber and incubate for five minutes.To make bundles, flow 10 microliters of non-biotinylated microtubules into the chamber and incubate for 10 minutes. Wash the chamber twice with 10 microliters of MB warm. During the 10-minute incubation time, prepare 10 microliters of assay mixture containing proteins of interest, soluble tubulin, nucleotides, oxygen scavengers, and antioxidants and spin it down.Keep the mixture on ice. Load the prepared imaging chamber taped to slide holder on the 100X TIRF objective. Use the 560 nanometer and 647 nanometer channels to find a field of view that contains an optimum number and density of single microtubules and bundles.Once a field of view is identified, take a reference image. Carefully flow in the assay mixture without disturbing the imaging chamber. Seal the open ends of the chamber with VALAP sealant.Observe the microtubules and start the imaging sequence. After immobilizing microtubule seeds and generating bundles, fluorescence images were obtained. Single microtubules were identified by fluorescent signal in the 647 nanometer channel, whereas microtubules were identified as preformed bundles when they displayed fluorescent signals in both channels.The dynamics of single microtubules and PRC1 crosslinked bundles were studied in the presence of the proteins KIF4A and CLASP1, which revealed that the single microtubules elongate over the course of the assay, whereas the growth of crosslinked microtubules is stalled. Be careful to keep polymerized microtubules at or above room temperature. Keep soluble tubulin on ice and protect the imaging chamber and fluorescently-labeled microtubules and proteins from light.These assays provided mechanistic insight into how a protein module found at the mitotic spindle could differentially regulate the dynamics of two different microtubule populations that coexist in the spindle.

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Research

JoVE Journal

Biochemistry

Probing The Structure And Dynamics Of Nucleosomes Using Atomic Force Microscopy Imaging

Chromatin, which is a long chain of nucleosome subunits, is a dynamic system that allows for such critical processes as DNA replication and transcription to take place in eukaryotic cells. The dynamics of nucleosomes provides access to the DNA by replication and transcription machineries, and critically contributes to the molecular mechanisms underlying chromatin functions. Single-molecule studies such as atomic force microscopy (AFM) imaging have contributed significantly to our current understanding of the role of nucleosome structure and dynamics. The current protocol describes the steps enabling high-resolution AFM imaging techniques to study the structural and dynamic properties of nucleosomes. The protocol is illustrated by AFM data obtained for the centromere nucleosomes in which H3 histone is replaced with its counterpart centromere protein A (CENP-A). The protocol starts with the assembly of mono-nucleosomes using a continuous dilution method. The preparation of the mica substrate functionalized with aminopropyl silatrane (APS-mica) that is used for the nucleosome imaging is critical for the AFM visualization of nucleosomes described and the procedure to prepare the substrate is provided. Nucleosomes deposited on the APS-mica surface are first imaged using static AFM, which captures a snapshot of the nucleosome population. From analyses of these images, such parameters as the size of DNA wrapped around the nucleosomes can be measured and this process is also detailed. The time-lapse AFM imaging procedure in the liquid is described for the high-speed time-lapse AFM that can capture several frames of nucleosome dynamics per second. Finally, the analysis of nucleosome dynamics enabling the quantitative characterization of the dynamic processes is described and illustrated.

Here, we present a protocol to characterize nucleosome particles at the single-molecule level using static and time-lapse atomic force microscopy (AFM) imaging techniques. The surface functionalization method described allows for the capture of the structure and dynamics of nucleosomes in high-resolution at the nanoscale.

Chromatin, which is a long chain of nucleosome subunits, is a dynamic system that allows for such critical processes as DNA replication and transcription ...

Proteome-wide Quantification of Labeling Homogeneity at the Single Molecule Level

Cell proteomes are often characterized using electrophoresis assays, where all species of proteins in the cells are non-specifically labeled with a fluorescent dye and are spotted by a photodetector following their separation. Single molecule fluorescence imaging can provide ultrasensitive protein detection with its ability for visualizing individual fluorescent molecules. However, the application of this powerful imaging method to electrophoresis assays is hampered by the lack of ways to characterize the homogeneity of fluorescent labeling of each protein species across the proteome. Here, we developed a method to evaluate the labeling homogeneity across the proteome based on a single molecule fluorescence imaging assay. In our measurement using a HeLa cell sample, the proportion of proteins labeled with at least one dye, which we termed &#8216;labeling occupancy&#8217; (LO), was determined to range from 50% to 90%, supporting the high potential of the application of single molecule imaging to sensitive and precise proteome analysis.

Here, we present a protocol to assess the labeling homogeneity for each protein species in a complex protein sample at the single molecule level.

Cell proteomes are often characterized using electrophoresis assays, where all species of proteins in the cells are non-specifically labeled with a ...

Visualizing Diffusional Dynamics of Gold Nanorods on Cell Membrane using Single Nanoparticle Darkfield Microscopy

Analyzing the diffusional dynamics of nanoparticles on cell membrane plays a significant role in better understanding the cellular uptake process and provides a theoretical basis for the rational design of nano-medicine delivery. Single particle tracking (SPT) analysis could probe the position and orientation of individual nanoparticles on cell membrane, and reveal their translational and rotational states. Here, we show how to use traditional dark-field microscopy to monitor the dynamics of gold nanorods (AuNRs) on live cell membrane. We also show how to extract the location and orientation of AuNRs using ImageJ and MATLAB, and how to characterize the diffusive states of AuNRs. Statistical analysis of hundreds of particles show that single AuNRs perform Brownian motion on the surface of U87 MG cell membrane. However, individual long trajectory analysis shows that AuNRs have two distinctly different types of motion states on the membrane, namely long-range transport and limited-area confinement. Our SPT methods can be potentially used to study the surface or intracellular particle diffusion in different biological cells and can become a powerful tool for investigations of complex cellular mechanisms.

Here, we show the use of traditional dark-field microscopy to monitor the dynamics of gold nanorods (AuNRs) on cell membrane. The location and orientation of single AuNRs are detected using ImageJ and MATLAB, and the diffusive states of AuNRs are characterized by single particle tracking analysis.

Analyzing the diffusional dynamics of nanoparticles on cell membrane plays a significant role in better understanding the cellular uptake process and ...

Single Cell Analysis Of Transcriptionally Active Alleles By Single Molecule FISH

Gene transcription is an essential process in cell biology, and allows cells to interpret and respond to internal and external cues. Traditional bulk population methods (Northern blot, PCR, and RNAseq) that measure mRNA levels lack the ability to provide information on cell-to-cell variation in responses. Precise single cell and allelic visualization and quantification is possible via single molecule RNA fluorescence in situ hybridization (smFISH). RNA-FISH is performed by hybridizing target RNAs with labeled oligonucleotide probes. These can be imaged in medium/high throughput modalities, and, through image analysis pipelines, provide quantitative data on both mature and nascent RNAs, all at the single cell level. The fixation, permeabilization, hybridization and imaging steps have been optimized in the lab over many years using the model system described herein, which results in successful and robust single cell analysis of smFISH labeling. The main goal with sample preparation and processing is to produce high quality images characterized by a high signal-to-noise ratio to reduce false positives and provide data that are more accurate. Here, we present a protocol describing the pipeline from sample preparation to data analysis in conjunction with suggestions and optimization steps to tailor to specific samples.&#160;

Single molecule RNA fluorescence in situ hybridization (smFISH) is a method to accurately quantify levels and localization of specific RNAs at the single cell level. Here, we report our validated lab protocols for wet-bench processing, imaging and image analysis for single cell quantification of specific RNAs.

Gene transcription is an essential process in cell biology, and allows cells to interpret and respond to internal and external cues. Traditional bulk ...

Simultaneous Interference Reflection and Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence Microscopy for Imaging Dynamic Microtubules and Associated Proteins

Several techniques have been employed for the direct visualization of cytoskeletal filaments and their associated proteins. Total-internal-reflection-fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy has a high signal-to-background ratio, but it suffers from photobleaching and photodamage of the fluorescent proteins. Label-free techniques such as interference reflection microscopy (IRM) and interferometric scattering microscopy (iSCAT) circumvent the problem of photobleaching but cannot readily visualize single molecules. This paper presents a protocol for combining IRM with a commercial TIRF microscope for the simultaneous imaging of microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs) and dynamic microtubules in vitro. This protocol allows for high-speed observation of MAPs interacting with dynamic microtubules. This improves on existing two-color TIRF setups by eliminating both the need for microtubule labeling and the need for several additional optical components, such as a second excitation laser. Both channels are imaged on the same camera chip to avoid image registration and frame synchronization problems. This setup is demonstrated by visualizing single kinesin molecules walking on dynamic microtubules.

We present a protocol for implementing interference-reflection microscopy and total-internal-reflection-fluorescence microscopy for the simultaneous imaging of dynamic microtubules and fluorescently labeled microtubule-associated proteins.

Several techniques have been employed for the direct visualization of cytoskeletal filaments and their associated proteins. ...

Using Microfluidics and Fluorescence Microscopy to Study the Assembly Dynamics of Single Actin Filaments and Bundles

In order to decipher the complex molecular mechanisms that regulate the assembly and disassembly of actin filaments, it is a great asset to monitor individual reactions live in well-controlled conditions. To do so, live single-filament experiments have emerged over the past 20 years, mostly using total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy, and have provided a trove of key results. In 2011, in order to further expand the possibilities of these experiments and to avoid recurring problematic artifacts, we introduced simple microfluidics in these assays. This study details our basic protocol, where individual actin filaments are anchored by one end to the passivated coverslip surface, align with the flow, and can be successively exposed to different protein solutions. We also present the protocols for specific applications and explain how controlled mechanical forces can be applied, thanks to the viscous drag of the flowing solution. We highlight the technical caveats of these experiments and briefly present possible developments based on this technique. These protocols and explanations, along with today&#39;s availability of easy-to-use microfluidics equipment, should allow non-specialists to implement this assay in their labs.

We present protocols for simple actin filament microfluidic assays, in combination with fluorescence microscopy, that allow one to accurately monitor individual actin filaments in real-time while sequentially exposing them to different protein solutions.

In order to decipher the complex molecular mechanisms that regulate the assembly and disassembly of actin filaments, it is a great asset to monitor ...

Visualizing Actin and Microtubule Coupling Dynamics In Vitro by Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence (TIRF) Microscopy

Traditionally, the actin and microtubule cytoskeletons have been studied as separate entities, restricted to specific cellular regions or processes, and regulated by different suites of binding proteins unique for each polymer. Many studies now demonstrate that the dynamics of both cytoskeletal polymers are intertwined and that this crosstalk is required for most cellular behaviors. A number of proteins involved in actin-microtubule interactions have already been identified (i.e., Tau, MACF, GAS, formins, and more) and are well characterized with regard to either actin or microtubules alone. However, relatively few studies showed assays of actin-microtubule coordination with dynamic versions of both polymers. This may occlude emergent linking mechanisms between actin and microtubules. Here, a total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy-based in vitro reconstitution technique permits the visualization of both actin and microtubule dynamics from the one biochemical reaction. This technique preserves the polymerization dynamics of either actin filament or microtubules individually or in the presence of the other polymer. Commercially available Tau protein is used to demonstrate how actin-microtubule behaviors change in the presence of a classic cytoskeletal crosslinking protein. This method can provide reliable functional and mechanistic insights into how individual regulatory proteins coordinate actin-microtubule dynamics at a resolution of single filaments or higher-order complexes.

Visualizing Actin and Microtubule Coupling Dynamics In Vitro by Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence TIRF Microscopy

This protocol is a guide for visualizing dynamic actin and microtubules using an in vitro total internal fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy assay.

Traditionally, the actin and microtubule cytoskeletons have been studied as separate entities, restricted to specific cellular regions or processes, and ...

Visualizing the Conformational Dynamics of Membrane Receptors Using Single-Molecule FRET

The ability of cells to respond to external signals is essential for cellular development, growth, and survival. To respond to a signal from the environment, a cell must be able to recognize and process it. This task mainly relies on the function of membrane receptors, whose role is to convert signals into the biochemical language of the cell. G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) constitute the largest family of membrane receptor proteins in humans. Among GPCRs, metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) are a unique subclass that function as obligate dimers and possess a large extracellular domain that contains the ligand-binding site. Recent advances in structural studies of mGluRs have improved the understanding of their activation process. However, the propagation of large-scale conformational changes through mGluRs during activation and modulation is poorly understood. Single-molecule fluorescence resonance energy transfer (smFRET) is a powerful technique to visualize and quantify the structural dynamics of biomolecules at the single-protein level. To visualize the dynamic process of mGluR2 activation, fluorescent conformational sensors based on unnatural amino acid (UAA) incorporation were developed that allowed site-specific protein labeling without perturbation of the native structure of receptors. The protocol described here explains how to perform these experiments, including the novel UAA labeling approach, sample preparation, and smFRET data acquisition and analysis. These strategies are generalizable and can be extended to investigate the conformational dynamics of a variety of membrane proteins.

This study presents a detailed procedure to perform single-molecule fluorescence resonance energy transfer (smFRET) experiments on G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) using site-specific labeling via unnatural amino acid (UAA) incorporation. The protocol provides a step-by-step guide for smFRET sample preparation, experiments, and data analysis.

The ability of cells to respond to external signals is essential for cellular development, growth, and survival. To respond to a signal from the ...

Single-Molecule Imaging of Lateral Mobility and Ion Channel Activity in Lipid Bilayers using Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence (TIRF) Microscopy

High-resolution imaging techniques have shown that many ion channels are not static, but subject to highly dynamic processes, including the transient association of pore-forming and auxiliary subunits, lateral diffusion, and clustering with other proteins. However, the relationship between lateral diffusion and function is poorly understood. To approach this problem, we describe how lateral mobility and activity of individual channels in supported lipid membranes can be monitored and correlated using total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy. Membranes are fabricated on an ultrathin hydrogel substrate using the droplet interface bilayer (DIB) technique. Compared to other types of model membranes, these membranes have the advantage of being mechanically robust and suitable for highly sensitive analytical techniques. This protocol measures Ca2+ ion flux through single channels by observing the fluorescence emission of a Ca2+-sensitive dye in close proximity to the membrane. In contrast to classical single-molecule tracking approaches, no fluorescent fusion proteins or labels, which can interfere with lateral movement and function in the membrane, are required. Possible changes in ion flux associated with conformational changes of the protein are only due to protein lateral motion in the membrane. Representative results are shown using the mitochondrial protein translocation channel TOM-CC and the bacterial channel OmpF. In contrast to OmpF, the gating of TOM-CC is very sensitive to molecular confinement and the nature of lateral diffusion. Hence, supported droplet-interface bilayers are a powerful tool to characterize the link between lateral diffusion and the function of ion channels.

Single-Molecule Imaging of Lateral Mobility and Ion Channel Activity in Lipid Bilayers using Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence TIRF Microscopy

This protocol describes how to use TIRF microscopy to track individual ion channels and determine their activity in supported lipid membranes, thereby defining the interplay between lateral membrane movement and channel function. It describes how to prepare the membranes, record the data, and analyze the results.

High-resolution imaging techniques have shown that many ion channels are not static, but subject to highly dynamic processes, including the transient ...

Extracting Modified Microtubules from Mammalian Cells to Study Microtubule-Protein Complexes by Cryo-Electron Microscopy

Microtubules are an important part of the cytoskeleton and are involved in intracellular organization, cell division, and migration. Depending on the posttranslational modifications, microtubules can form complexes with various interacting proteins. These microtubule-protein complexes are often implicated in human diseases. Understanding the structure of such complexes is useful for elucidating their mechanisms of action and can be studied by cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM). To obtain such complexes for structural studies, it is important to extract microtubules containing or lacking specific posttranslational modifications. Here, we describe a simplified protocol to extract endogenous tubulin from genetically modified mammalian cells, involving microtubule polymerization, followed by sedimentation using ultracentrifugation. The extracted tubulin can then be used to prepare cryo-electron microscope grids with microtubules that are bound to a purified microtubule-binding protein of interest. As an example, we demonstrate the extraction of fully tyrosinated microtubules from cell lines engineered to lack the three known tubulin-detyrosinating enzymes. These microtubules are then used to make a protein complex with enzymatically inactive microtubule-associated tubulin detyrosinase on cryo-EM grids.

Here, we describe a protocol to extract endogenous tubulin from mammalian cells, which can lack or contain specific microtubule-modifying enzymes, to obtain microtubules enriched for a specific modification. We then describe how the extracted microtubules can be decorated with purified microtubule-binding proteins to prepare grids for cryo-electron microscopy.

Microtubules are an important part of the cytoskeleton and are involved in intracellular organization, cell division, and migration. Depending on the ...