著者は、このプロジェクトと彼らの支援のためのエレナLomakina、リチャードBauserman、マーガレットヤングマン、シェイVaknin、ジェシカ·スナイダー、クリスStriemer、Nakulナタラジ、鴻李鄭、テジャスKhire、エリックラムに感謝したいと思います。このプロジェクトは、NIH＃PO1 HL 018208によって賄われていた。

1。メソッド 1.1セル·フローチャンバー細胞は1.0 Paの（10ダイン/ cm 2）のせん断下で成長してから、アサイラムMFP3D AFM（サンタバーバラ、カリフォルニア州）に直接転送することができるように、図1に示すフローチャンバーは、構築した。 <ol><li> 15分間、次いで蒸留水でそれらを洗濯：フローチャンバーは最初ピラニア溶液（H 2 O 2 3：01、H 2 SO 4）内にスライドガラスを洗浄することにより、実験のために用意された。彼らはその後に焼成した乾燥した真空蒸着チャンバー内のシランアミノプロピルトリエトキシシラン（APTES）で被覆した。 </li><li>シリコーンガスケットはシルエットSDの切削工具を用いて切断した。これは、私たちは細かく細胞増殖時の流速とせん断応力を制御するためのフローチャンバーの寸法を制御することができました。典型的には、チャネル、0.4 mmのシリコンのシートから長い19ミリメートルで幅の広い6.4ミリメートルを切断した。属に必要な流量TE 1.0 PA（10ダイン/ cm 2）のせん断応力は、次式を有する矩形チャネル内の層流を仮定して計算されます： </li></ol><img alt="式（1）" fo:content-width="0.737in" fo:src="/files/ftp_upload/50163/50163eq1highres.jpg" src="/files/ftp_upload/50163/50163eq1.jpg" /> Qは流量であり、τはせん断応力であり、μは 、1.0メガパスカル（0.01ダイン*秒/ cm 2）であることがここで想定媒体の粘度であり、hは高さであり、wはフローチャンバーの幅です。 <ol start="3"><li>フローチャンバーのトップピースは、細胞培養皿にガスケットと整列し、磁気リングで固定した。アセンブリは、滅菌のためにイソプロピルアルコール（IPA）で満たされていた。 </li><li>フルフローシステムを組み立てた。細胞培養皿内のフローポートは三方弁に接続されていた。バルブは30ミリリットルのシリンジを開くために接続されていたsである。 IPAは、その後4％ウシ胎児血清（FCS）をマッコイ培地30mlで洗浄したシステムを介して流した。システムは、その後、Vecはテクノロジーズ細胞増殖培地20mlを充填した。カバーは​​シリンジのトップスの上に置かれた。キャッチ·リザーバーシリンジキャップ、フィードタンクに戻ってメディアを移動する場所に針を持っていた。滅菌0.2μmのフィルターは、システムの汚染を防止するためにカバーに空気口に取り付けた。フローチャンバーは、次に細胞播種の準備ができていた。 </li></ol> 1.2細胞培養<ol><li>ヒト臍帯静脈内皮細胞（HUVECの）と増殖培地はVecはテクノロジーから購入（レンセラー工科大学、ニューヨーク州）とT25フラスコでコンフルエントになるまで増殖させた。 </li><li>増殖培地をフラスコと2.5％トリプシンの2ミリリットルでリリースされた細胞の単層から除去された。細胞は溶液中であったら、トリプシン処理をフラスコに細胞培養培地10mlを加えてクエンチした。 </li><li>木曜日eの細胞懸濁液を5分間遠心分離した上清を除去した。細胞は、フローチャンバーに注入するための細胞培養培地（血清を含む）1mlに再懸濁した。 </li><li>細胞懸濁液（0.5ミリリットル、〜50,000細胞）をシリンジに装填し、三方弁を介してフローチャンバーに注入した。 </li><li>細胞は、フローが開始される前に2時間のために解決し、ガラス基板に付着させた。細胞がコンフルエントになるまで1〜5日間37℃でインキュベーター内の流れの下で成長させた。 </li></ol> 1.3カンチレバーの作製と細胞のインデント<ol><li>チップレスのAFMカンチレバー（ナノワールド、スイス）を5分間硝酸で洗浄、蒸着室でシランアミノプロピルトリエトキシシラン（APTES）で官能化された。 </li><li>ハンクス緩衝塩溶液中の重量のNHS-スルホ-LC-ビオチンで5 mg / mlの溶液（HBSS）を調製した。カンチレバーは、コンジュ〜15分間溶液中に浸漬したN-ヒドロキシスクシンイミド（NHS）化学とシランゲート。 </li><li>ビオチンを含まない培地の溶液を12時間streptavadinビーズ200μlでVecは技術、細胞培養培地（血清を含む）の20ミリリットルをインキュベートすることにより行った。ビーズを磁石で培地から除去し、培地を0.22μm滅菌フィルターで濾過した。 </li><li>フローチャンバーは、細胞培養皿から除去し、細胞を37℃ビオチンを含まない培地で洗浄した。 </li><li>ビオチンを含まない培地を1mlのストレプトアビジンでコーティングされた2.4μmのビーズ1μlの原液を調製し、株式100μlの細胞培養皿に添加した。 </li><li>ストレプトアビジンビーズは、ビーズ、後退の横のガラス表面上の先端を着陸ビーズ上にカンチレバーの頂点を配置した後、ビーズとの憩いの数秒にカンチレバーを押し下げることによってカンチレバーで拾い上げた。 </li><li>カンチレバーの感度は、メジャーだった裸のガラスの領域にインデントや電圧の関数としての先端のたわみを設定するには、曲線の傾きを指定することで、D。 </li><li>カンチレバーのばね定数は、次にMFP3Dソフトウェアの熱キャリブレーションから算出した。 </li><li> 図2に示すように校正されたカンチレバーは、その後、サンプルをインデントするために使用された。これらの2.4μmのビーズは柔らかい糖衣層の機械的特性を検出することができるように、細胞表面との接触面積を提供します。カンチレバーは、セルに細胞核と先端の柔らかいアプローチに近いセルの上に配置された細胞表面上約3μmカンチレバーの高さを設定するために使用された。ソフトウェアは7 NNの最大の力〜1μmで/秒の速度で20繰り返さくぼみに設定されました。約6秒の連続接点間経過。これらの初期ではあるが、グリコカリックスの時間依存特性をテストするためにインデントの異なるレートを使用することが可能です<html>実験は、単一のインデント率は（1ミクロン/秒）を用いた。 </li></ol> 2。インデント論半径Rの球との半空間弾性にインデントはインデントの力Fは 、式で与えられるヘルツ理論を用いて説明することができます： <img alt="式（2）" fo:content-width="1.157in" fo:src="/files/ftp_upload/50163/50163eq2highres.jpg" src="/files/ftp_upload/50163/50163eq2.jpg" /> 押し込み深さここで、δであり、E * は 、被試験材料（ 図3）の減少率である。均一な弾性半空間を無限に当たる硬い圧子の場合、E *は次式で与えられます。 3/50163eq3.jpg &quot;/&gt; Eはどこ弾性率、νは材料のポアソン比である。ポリマーフィルムと最近の研究では、薄膜1の弾性率と厚さを決定するための2層モデルの開発にインスピレーションを与えてきました。我々は、細胞体の表面に均一な薄膜軟質フィルムとして糖衣を扱うことによって、細胞生物学に本モデルを適用しています。このモデルを使用して、システムの縮小率は次のようになります。 <img alt="式（4）" fo:content-width="2.85in" fo:src="/files/ftp_upload/50163/50163eq4highres.jpg" src="/files/ftp_upload/50163/50163eq4.jpg" /> Eの GCはグリコカリックスの係数であり、E 細胞は細胞体の弾性率であり、P、Qおよびnは、経験的にポリマー収まるから決定された、 および z は次式で与えられる定数です。 <p class="jove_content" fo:keep-together.withinページ= &quot;always&quot;を&gt; <img alt="式（5）" fo:content-width="1.257in" fo:src="/files/ftp_upload/50163/50163eq5highres.jpg" src="/files/ftp_upload/50163/50163eq5.jpg" /> ここで、t は、糖衣層の厚さである。これらのパラメータの概略を図3に示します。モデルは硬めの基板1上に薄膜の弾性率と厚さを決定する正確な方法であることが示されている。 図4に示すように、この式は、内皮グリコカリックスの弾性率と厚さを決定するために、細胞内にインデントから得られた曲線に合わせて使用することができます。

<ol>
	<li>Clifford, C., Seah, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nanoindentation+measurement+of+young's+modulus+for+compliant+layers+on+stiffer+substrates+including+the+effect+of+poisson's+ratios.">Nanoindentation measurement of young's modulus for compliant layers on stiffer substrates including the effect of poisson's ratios.</a> Nanotechnology. , (2009).</li><li>Gouverneur, M., Spaan, J. A. E., Pannekoek, H., Fontijn, R. D., Vink, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fluid+shear+stress+stimulates+incorporation+of+hyaluronan+into+endothelial+cell+glycocalyx.">Fluid shear stress stimulates incorporation of hyaluronan into endothelial cell glycocalyx.</a> Am. J. Physiol. Heart. Circ. Physiol. 290 (1), 458-452 (2006).</li><li>Hocde, S. A., Hyrien, O., Waugh, R. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cell+adhesion+molecule+distribution+relative+to+neutrophil+surface+topography+assessed+by+tirfm.">Cell adhesion molecule distribution relative to neutrophil surface topography assessed by tirfm.</a> Biophysical Journal. 97 (1), 379-387 (2009).</li><li>Lipowski, H. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+endothelial+glycocalyx+as+a+barrier+to+leukocyte+adhesion+and+its+mediation+by+extracellular+proteases.">The endothelial glycocalyx as a barrier to leukocyte adhesion and its mediation by extracellular proteases.</a> Annals of biomedical engineering. 40 (4), 840-848 (2012).</li><li>Lu, L., Oswald, S. J., Ngu, H., Yin, F. C. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mechanical+properties+of+actin+stress+fibers+in+living+cells.">Mechanical properties of actin stress fibers in living cells.</a> Biophysical Journal. 95 (12), 6060-6071 (2008).</li><li>Pries, A. R., Secomb, T. W., Gaehtgens, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+endothelial+surface+layer.">The endothelial surface layer.</a> Pflugers Archiv. European Journal of Physiology. 440 (5), 653-666 (2000).</li><li>Spillmann, C. M., Lomakina, E., Waugh, R. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neutrophil+adhesive+contact+dependence+on+impingement+force.">Neutrophil adhesive contact dependence on impingement force.</a> Biophysical Journal. 87 (6), 4237-4245 (2004).</li><li>vanden Berg, B. M., Vink, H., Spaan, J. A. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+endothelial+glycocalyx+protects+against+myocardial+edema.">The endothelial glycocalyx protects against myocardial edema.</a> Circulation Research. 92 (6), 592-594 (2003).</li><li>Williams, T. E., Nagarajan, S., Selvaraj, P., Zhu, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Quantifying+the+impact+of+membrane+microtopology+on+effective+two-dimensional+affinity.">Quantifying the impact of membrane microtopology on effective two-dimensional affinity.</a> J. Biol. Chem. 276 (16), 13283-138 (2001).</li><li>Vink, H., Duling, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Identification+of+Distinct+Luminal+Domains+for+Macromolecules,+Erythrocytes,+and+Leukocytes+Within+Mammalian+Capillaries.">Identification of Distinct Luminal Domains for Macromolecules, Erythrocytes, and Leukocytes Within Mammalian Capillaries.</a> Circulation Research. 79, 581-589 (1996).</li></ol>

特別な利害関係は宣言されません。

我々は、2層モデルと内皮壁と血液中を循環する白血球の相互作用をモデル化するためのヘルツ理論から算出した値を使用していました。我々は、10 PN荷重下50nmの直径を持つ白血球上の微絨毛は糖衣に約150nmをインデントすることを全体の厚さのほんの一部を計算した。これは、この実験で測定された特性を持つグリコカリックスは、細胞間相互作用に大きな障害となり、細胞は白血球の接着?...

<table border="1"><tbody><tr><td> 試薬/材料の名称 </td><td> 会社 </td><td> カタログ番号 </td><td> 注釈 </td></tr><tr><td>マッコイミディアム</td><td>ギブコ</td><td> 16600-082 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td>ウシ胎仔血清</td><td> Hyclone社</td><td> SH30070 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td>内皮細胞増殖培地</td><td> VEC Technologies社</td><td> MCDB-131 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td>プールしたヒト臍帯静脈内皮細胞</td><td> VEC Technologies社</td><td> PHUVEC/T-25 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td>硫酸</td><td> JTベーカー</td><td> 9681から02 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td>過酸化水素</td><td> VWR </td><td> BDH3742-1 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> （3 - アミノプロピル）トリエトキシシラン</td><td>アルドリッチ</td><td> 440140-100ML </td><td></td></tr><tr><td>イソプロピルアルコール</td><td> VWR </td><td> BDH8999-4 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td>トリプシン</td><td> Cellgro </td><td> 25から054-C1 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td>ハンクス緩衝塩溶液</td><td>ギブコ</td><td> 14175-095 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td>スルホ-NHS-LC-ビオチン</td><td>サーモサイエンティフィック</td><td> 21335 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> Streptavadinビーズ</td><td>ダイナ</td><td> 112.06D </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> MFP-3D AFM </td><td>アサイラムリサーチ</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>チップレスカンチレバー</td><td>ナノワールド</td><td> ARROW-TL1-50 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td>シルエットのSD </td><td> Quickutz </td><td>シルエット-SD </td><td></td></tr><tr><td>シリコーンゴム</td><td>ストックウェルElastomerics </td><td> SE50-RS </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> 30mlのシリンジ</TD&gt; <td>ベントンディッキンソン</td><td> 309650 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> 18ゲージの針</td><td>ベントンディッキンソン</td><td> 305196 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td>拡張セット</td><td>ホスピーラ</td><td> 4429から48 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td> 4方弁</td><td> Teleflexは</td><td> W21372 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td>男性/女性ポートキャップ</td><td>スミスの医療</td><td> MX491B </td><td></td></tr><tr><td>蠕動ポンプ</td><td>ワトソン·マーロー</td><td> 401U / D </td><td></td></tr><tr><td>蠕動チューブ</td><td>ワトソン·マーロー</td><td> 903.0016.016 </td><td></td></tr><tr><td>滅菌フィルター</td><td>ポールライフサイエンス</td><td> 4652 </td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

quantifying the mechanical properties of the endothelial glycocalyx with atomic force microscopy

白血球と白血球キャプチャ時の血管壁の相互作用についての我々の理解は、内皮表面層の機械的特性の不完全な理解によってのみ制限されます。それは、白血球上の接着分子が表面トポグラフィー3に対して不均一に分布していることが知られており、その地形が他の表面9に接着結合の形成を制限し、その生理的な接触力（≈5.0 -微絨毛あたり10.0 PNが）と微絨毛を圧縮することができます対向面3,7に分子のアクセシビリティを増やし、彼らの休憩の長さの3分の少し。我々は2層構造と、比較的剛性の細胞体、プラス糖衣、腔面6に柔らかい保護糖コーティングなどの内皮を検討してください。それはグリコカリックスは内皮表面4への白血球の付着を低減するための障壁として作用し得ることが示されている。本稿では、内皮の機械剛性が結合形成に影響を与える可能性のある方法を理解する内皮表面の変形に対処するために開始されます。静置培養で増殖した内皮細胞は、堅牢な糖衣を発現しないが、生理的な流動条件下で培養した細胞は 、in vivo で観察された2近似糖衣し始める。内皮細胞体の弾性率は、約5〜20kPaで5であることが、原子間力顕微鏡（AFM）を用いて測定されています。グリコカリックスの厚さや構造は電子顕微鏡8を使用して研究されており、グリコカリックスの弾性率は、間接的な方法を用いて近似されていますが、私たちの知る限りでは、生きた細胞で糖衣弾性率の直接測定は発表報告されていない。そこで本研究では、MAに彼らの糖衣式を最大化するための条件で培養した細胞上で小説AFMプローブで作られたインデントの実験を提示内皮グリコカリックスの弾性率と厚さのke直接測定。

典型的な実験では、20力片対距離曲線は近くで​​はなく、核（〜2μm以内）に、通常は核周辺領域で、セルの指定された領域から得られた。曲線は測定期間にわたって任意のサンプルのドリフトを考慮するために整列した後、図4に示すように、カンチレバーのノイズを除去するために平均化した。曲線を分析し、薄いポリマーフィルム1の弾性率と厚さを決定するために?...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Quantifying the Mechanical Properties of the Endothelial Glycocalyx with Atomic Force Microscopy at JoVE.com

Quantifying the Mechanical Properties of the Endothelial Glycocalyx with Atomic Force Microscopy

内皮グリコカリックスの機械的特性は、AFMカンチレバー上にミクロンサイズの球を使用して、インデントによって測定した。内皮細胞は糖衣発現を誘導する生理的な流動条件下でカスタム室で培養した。データはグリコカリックス厚さと弾性率を決定するために、薄膜モデルを用いて分析した。

原子間力顕微鏡と内皮グリコカリックスの機械的性質の定量化

Our  understanding of the interaction of leukocytes and the vessel wall during  leukocyte capture is limited by an incomplete understanding of the ...

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13.1K ビュー.  University of Rochester. 内皮グリコカリックスの機械的特性は、AFMカンチレバー上にミクロンサイズの球を使用して、インデントによって測定した。内皮細胞は糖衣発現を誘導する生理的な流動条件下でカスタム室で培養した。データはグリコカリックス厚さと弾性率を決定するために、薄膜モデルを用いて分析した。

ビデオ: Quantifying the Mechanical Properties of the Endothelial Glycocalyx with Atomic Force Microscopy

Bacterial Immobilization for Imaging by Atomic Force Microscopy

AFM is a high-resolution (nm scale) imaging tool that mechanically probes a surface. It has the ability to image cells and biomolecules, in a liquid environment, without the need to chemically treat the sample. In order to accomplish this goal, the sample must sufficiently adhere to the mounting surface to prevent removal by forces exerted by the scanning AFM cantilever tip. In many instances, successful imaging depends on immobilization of the sample to the mounting surface. Optimally, immobilization should be minimally invasive to the sample such that metabolic processes and functional attributes are not compromised. By coating freshly cleaved mica surfaces with porcine (pig) gelatin, negatively charged bacteria can be immobilized on the surface and imaged in liquid by AFM. Immobilization of bacterial cells on gelatin-coated mica is most likely due to electrostatic interaction between the negatively charged bacteria and the positively charged gelatin. Several factors can interfere with bacterial immobilization, including chemical constituents of the liquid in which the bacteria are suspended, the incubation time of the bacteria on the gelatin coated mica, surface characteristics of the bacterial strain and the medium in which the bacteria are imaged. Overall, the use of gelatin-coated mica is found to be generally applicable for imaging microbial cells.

Live Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria can be immobilized on gelatin-coated mica and imaged in liquid using Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM).

原子間力顕微鏡によるイメージングのための細菌の固定化

AFM is a high-resolution (nm scale) imaging tool that mechanically probes a surface.  It has the ability to image cells and biomolecules, in a liquid ...

生物工学

Visualization of Recombinant DNA and Protein Complexes Using Atomic Force Microscopy

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) allows for the visualizing of individual proteins, DNA molecules, protein-protein complexes, and DNA-protein complexes. On the end of the microscope's cantilever is a nano-scale probe, which traverses image areas ranging from nanometers to micrometers, measuring the elevation of macromolecules resting on the substrate surface at any given point. Electrostatic forces cause proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids to loosely attach to the substrate in random orientations and permit imaging. The generated data resemble a topographical map, where the macromolecules resolve as three-dimensional particles of discrete sizes (Figure 1) 1,2. Tapping mode AFM involves the repeated oscillation of the cantilever, which permits imaging of relatively soft biomaterials such as DNA and proteins. One of the notable benefits of AFM over other nanoscale microscopy techniques is its relative adaptability to visualize individual proteins and macromolecular complexes in aqueous buffers, including near-physiologic buffered conditions, in real-time, and without staining or coating the sample to be imaged. 
The method presented here describes the imaging of DNA and an immunoadsorbed transcription factor (i.e. the glucocorticoid receptor, GR) in buffered solution (Figure 2). Immunoadsorbed proteins and protein complexes can be separated from the immunoadsorbing antibody-bead pellet by competition with the antibody epitope and then imaged (Figure 2A). This allows for biochemical manipulation of the biomolecules of interest prior to imaging. Once purified, DNA and proteins can be mixed and the resultant interacting complex can be imaged as well. Binding of DNA to mica requires a divalent cation 3,such as Ni2+ or Mg2+, which can be added to sample buffers yet maintain protein activity. Using a similar approach, AFM has been utilized to visualize individual enzymes, including RNA polymerase 4 and a repair enzyme 5, bound to individual DNA strands. These experiments provide significant insight into the protein-protein and DNA-protein biophysical interactions taking place at the molecular level. Imaging individual macromolecular particles with AFM can be useful for determining particle homogeneity and for identifying the physical arrangement of constituent components of the imaged particles. While the present method was developed for visualization of GR-chaperone protein complexes 1,2 and DNA strands to which the GR can bind, it can be applied broadly to imaging DNA and protein samples from a variety of sources.

A tapping mode atomic force microscope (AFM) method for the visualization of plasmid DNA, cytoplasmic proteins, and DNA-protein complexes is described. The method includes alternate approaches for preparing samples for AFM imaging following biochemical manipulation. DNA containing specific protein interacting regions are observed in near-physiologic buffer conditions.

原子間力顕微鏡を用いて組換えDNAとタンパク質の複合体の可視化

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) allows for the visualizing of individual proteins, DNA molecules, protein-protein complexes, and DNA-protein complexes. On ...

Measuring the Mechanical Properties of Living Cells Using Atomic Force Microscopy

Mechanical properties of cells and extracellular matrix (ECM) play important roles in many biological processes including stem cell differentiation, tumor formation, and wound healing. Changes in stiffness of cells and ECM are often signs of changes in cell physiology or diseases in tissues. Hence, cell stiffness is an index to evaluate the status of cell cultures. Among the multitude of methods applied to measure the stiffness of cells and tissues, micro-indentation using an Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) provides a way to reliably measure the stiffness of living cells. This method has been widely applied to characterize the micro-scale stiffness for a variety of materials ranging from metal surfaces to soft biological tissues and cells. The basic principle of this method is to indent a cell with an AFM tip of selected geometry and measure the applied force from the bending of the AFM cantilever. Fitting the force-indentation curve to the Hertz model for the corresponding tip geometry can give quantitative measurements of material stiffness. This paper demonstrates the procedure to characterize the stiffness of living cells using AFM. Key steps including the process of AFM calibration, force-curve acquisition, and data analysis using a MATLAB routine are demonstrated. Limitations of this method are also discussed.

This paper demonstrates a protocol to characterize the mechanical properties of living cells by means of microindentation using an Atomic Force Microscope (AFM).

原子間力顕微鏡を用いた生細胞の機械的特性を測定する

Mechanical  properties of cells and extracellular matrix (ECM) play important roles in many  biological processes including stem cell differentiation, ...

A Novel Method for Localizing Reporter Fluorescent Beads Near the Cell Culture Surface for Traction Force Microscopy

PA gels have long been used as a platform to study cell traction forces due to ease of fabrication and the ability to tune their elastic properties. When the substrate is coated with an extracellular matrix protein, cells adhere to the gel and apply forces, causing the gel to deform. The deformation depends on the cell traction and the elastic properties of the gel. If the deformation field of the surface is known, surface traction can be calculated using elasticity theory. Gel deformation is commonly measured by embedding fluorescent marker beads uniformly into the gel. The probes displace as the gel deforms. The probes near the surface of the gel are tracked. The displacements reported by these probes are considered as surface displacements. Their depths from the surface are ignored. This assumption introduces error in traction force evaluations. For precise measurement of cell forces, it is critical for the location of the beads to be known. We have developed a technique that utilizes simple chemistry to confine fluorescent marker beads, 0.1 and 1 &#181;m in diameter, in PA gels, within 1.6 &#956;m of the surface. We coat a coverslip with poly-D-lysine (PDL) and fluorescent beads. PA gel solution is then sandwiched between the coverslip and an adherent surface. The fluorescent beads transfer to the gel solution during curing. After polymerization, the PA gel contains fluorescent beads on a plane close to the gel surface.

Traditional techniques for fabricating polyacrylamide (PA) gels containing fluorescent probes involve sandwiching a gel between an adherent surface and a glass slide. Here, we show that coating this slide with poly-D-lysine (PDL) and fluorescent probes localizes the probes to within 1.6 &#181;m from the gel surface.

トラクション力顕微鏡用の細胞培養表面近くのローカライズレポーター蛍光ビーズのための新しい方法

PA gels have long been used as a platform to study cell traction forces due to ease of fabrication and the ability to tune their elastic properties. When ...

Atomic Force Microscopy Imaging and Force Spectroscopy of Supported Lipid Bilayers

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is a versatile, high-resolution imaging technique that allows visualization of biological membranes. It has sufficient magnification to examine membrane substructures and even individual molecules. AFM can act as a force probe to measure interactions and mechanical properties of membranes. Supported lipid bilayers are conventionally used as membrane models in AFM studies. In this protocol, we demonstrate how to prepare supported bilayers and characterize their structure and mechanical properties using AFM. These include bilayer thickness and breakthrough force. 
The information provided by AFM imaging and force spectroscopy help define mechanical and chemical properties of membranes. These properties play an important role in cellular processes such as maintaining cell hemostasis from environmental stress, bringing membrane proteins together, and stabilizing protein complexes.

We describe a protocol for preparation of supported lipid bilayers and its characterization using atomic force microscopy and force spectroscopy.

原子間力顕微鏡イメージングおよびサポートされている脂質二重層のフォーススペクトロスコピー

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is a versatile, high-resolution imaging technique that allows visualization of biological membranes. It has sufficient ...

In Situ Mapping of the Mechanical Properties of Biofilms by Particle-tracking Microrheology

Bacterial cells are able to form surface-attached biofilm communities known as biofilms by encasing themselves in extracellular polymeric substances (EPS). The EPS serves as a physical and protective scaffold that houses the bacterial cells and consists of a variety of materials that includes proteins, exopolysaccharides and DNA. The composition of the EPS may change, which remodels the mechanic properties of the biofilm to further develop or support alternative biofilm structures, such as streamers, as a response to environmental cues. Despite this, there are little quantitative descriptions on how EPS components contribute to the mechanical properties and function of biofilms. Rheology, the study of the flow of matter, is of particular relevance to biofilms as many biofilms grow in flow conditions and are constantly exposed to shear stress. It also provides measurement and insight on the spreading of the biofilm on a surface. Here, particle-tracking microrheology is used to examine the viscoelasticity and effective crosslinking roles of different matrix components in various parts of the biofilm during development. This approach allows researchers to measure mechanic properties of biofilms at the micro-scale, which might provide useful information for controlling and engineering biofilms.

In Situ Mapping of the Mechanical Properties of Biofilms by Particle-tracking Microrheology

Particle-tracking microrheology investigates the viscoelasticity of materials. Here, the technique is used to determine the viscoelasticity, creep compliance and effective crosslinking roles of different matrix components of a bacterial biofilm. The matrix consists of polymeric substances secreted by the bacteria and its components determine biofilm structure and mechanical properties.

粒子追跡マイクロレオロジーによりバイオフィルムの機械的特性のその場でのマッピング

Bacterial cells are able to form surface-attached biofilm communities known as biofilms by encasing themselves in extracellular polymeric substances ...

Synthesis of Hydrogels with Antifouling Properties As Membranes for Water Purification

Hydrogels have been widely utilized to enhance the surface hydrophilicity of membranes for water purification, increasing the antifouling properties and thus achieving stable water permeability through membranes over time. Here, we report a facile method to prepare hydrogels based on zwitterions for membrane applications. Freestanding films can be prepared from sulfobetaine methacrylate (SBMA) with a crosslinker of poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA) via photopolymerization. The hydrogels can also be prepared by impregnation into hydrophobic porous supports to enhance the mechanical strength. These films can be characterized by attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) to determine the degree of conversion of the (meth)acrylate groups, using goniometers for hydrophilicity and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) for polymer chain dynamics. We also report protocols to determine the water permeability in dead-end filtration systems and the effect of foulants (bovine serum albumin, BSA) on membrane performance.

This paper reports practical methods to prepare hydrogels in freestanding films and impregnated membranes and to characterize their physical properties, including water transport properties.

水質浄化のための膜のような防汚特性を持つハイドロゲルの合成

Hydrogels have been widely utilized to enhance the surface hydrophilicity of membranes for water purification, increasing the antifouling properties and ...

A Millimeter Scale Flexural Testing System for Measuring the Mechanical Properties of Marine Sponge Spicules

Many load bearing biological structures (LBBSs)&#8212;such as feather rachises and spicules&#8212;are small (&#60;1 mm) but not microscopic. Measuring the flexural behavior of these LBBSs is important for understanding the origins of their remarkable mechanical functions.
We describe a protocol for performing three-point bending tests using a custom-built mechanical testing device that can measure forces ranging from 10-5 to 101 N and displacements ranging from 10-7 to 10-2 m. The primary advantage of this mechanical testing device is that the force and displacement capacities can be easily adjusted for different LBBSs. The device&#39;s operating principle is similar to that of an atomic force microscope. Namely, force is applied to the LBBS by a load point that is attached to the end of a cantilever. The load point displacement is measured by a fiber optic displacement sensor and converted into a force using the measured cantilever stiffness. The device&#39;s force range can be adjusted by using cantilevers of different stiffnesses.
The device&#39;s capabilities are demonstrated by performing three-point bending tests on the skeletal elements of the marine sponge Euplectella aspergillum. The skeletal elements&#8212;known as spicules&#8212;are silica fibers that are approximately 50 &#181;m in diameter. We describe the procedures for calibrating the mechanical testing device, mounting the spicules on a three-point bending fixture with a &#8776;1.3 mm span, and performing a bending test. The force applied to the spicule and its deflection at the location of the applied force are measured.

We present a protocol for performing three-point bending tests on sub-millimeter scale fibers using a custom-built mechanical testing device. The device can measure forces ranging from 20 &#181;N up to 10 N and can therefore accommodate a variety of fiber sizes.

海綿骨の機械的性質を測定するためミリ スケール曲げテスト システム

Many load bearing biological structures (LBBSs)&#8212;such as feather rachises and spicules&#8212;are small (&#60;1 mm) but not microscopic. Measuring the ...

Biaxial Mechanical Characterizations of Atrioventricular Heart Valves

Extensive biaxial mechanical testing of the atrioventricular heart valve leaflets can be utilized to derive&#160;optimal parameters used in constitutive models, which provide a mathematical representation of the mechanical function of those structures. This presented biaxial mechanical testing protocol involves (i) tissue acquisition, (ii) the preparation of tissue specimens, (iii) biaxial mechanical testing, and (iv) postprocessing of the acquired data. First, tissue acquisition requires obtaining porcine or ovine hearts from a local Food and Drug Administration-approved abattoir for later dissection to retrieve the valve leaflets. Second, tissue preparation requires using tissue specimen cutters on the leaflet tissue to extract a clear zone for testing. Third, biaxial mechanical testing of the leaflet specimen requires the use of a commercial biaxial mechanical tester, which consists of force-controlled, displacement-controlled, and stress-relaxation testing protocols to characterize the leaflet tissue&#39;s mechanical properties. Finally, post-processing requires the use of data image correlation techniques and force and displacement readings to summarize the tissue&#39;s mechanical behaviors in response to external loading. In general, results from biaxial testing demonstrate that the leaflet tissues yield a nonlinear, anisotropic mechanical response. The presented biaxial testing procedure is advantageous to other methods since the method presented here allows for a more comprehensive characterization of the valve leaflet tissue under one unified testing scheme, as opposed to separate testing protocols on different tissue specimens. The proposed testing method has its limitations in that shear stress is potentially present in the tissue sample. However, any potential shear is presumed negligible.

This protocol involves characterizations of atrioventricular valve leaflets with force-controlled, displacement-controlled, and stress-relaxation biaxial mechanical testing procedures. Results acquired with this protocol can be used for constitutive model development to simulate the mechanical behavior of functioning valves under a finite element simulation framework.

房室弁の二軸の機械特性

Extensive biaxial mechanical testing of the atrioventricular heart valve leaflets can be utilized to derive&#160;optimal parameters used in constitutive ...

Application of Atomic Force Microscopy to Detect Early Osteoarthritis

Biomechanical properties of cells and tissues not only regulate their shape and function but are also crucial for maintaining their vitality. Changes in elasticity can propagate or trigger the onset of major diseases like cancer or osteoarthritis (OA). Atomic force microscopy (AFM) has emerged as a strong tool to qualitatively and quantitatively characterize the biomechanical properties of specific biological target structures on a microscopic scale, measuring forces in a range from as small as the piconewton to the micronewton. Biomechanical properties are of special importance in musculoskeletal tissues, which are subjected to high levels of strain. OA as a degenerative disease of the cartilage results in the disruption of the pericellular matrix (PCM) and the spatial rearrangement of the chondrocytes embedded in their extracellular matrix (ECM). Disruption in PCM and ECM has been associated with changes in the biomechanical properties of cartilage. In the present study we used AFM to quantify these changes in relation to the specific spatial pattern changes of the chondrocytes. With each pattern change, significant changes in elasticity were observed for both the PCM and ECM. Measuring the local elasticity thus allows for drawing direct conclusions about the degree of local tissue degeneration in OA.

We present a method to investigate early osteoarthritic changes at the cellular level in articular cartilage by using atomic force microscopy (AFM).

早期変形性関節症の検出に対する原子間力顕微鏡の応用

Biomechanical properties of cells and tissues not only regulate their shape and function but are also crucial for maintaining their vitality. Changes in ...