Name: light-sheet fluorescence microscopy for the study of the murine heart
Uploaded: 2018-09-15T14:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Light-sheet Fluorescence Microscopy for the Study of the Murine Heart at JoVE.com

The authors would like to express gratitude to Thao Nguyen and Atsushi Nakano from UCLA for providing the mice sample to image. This study was supported by grants NIH HL118650 (to Tzung K. Hsiai), HL083015 (to Tzung K. Hsiai), HD069305 (to N. C. Chi and Tzung K. Hsiai.), HL111437 (to Tzung K. Hsiai and N. C. Chi), HL129727 (to Tzung K. Hsiai), and University of Texas System STARS funding (to Juhyun Lee).

All the procedures involving the use of animals have been approved by the Institutional Review Committees (IACUC) at the University of California, Los Angeles, California.
1. Imaging System Setup
Note: See Figure 1 and Figure 2.
<ol>
	<li>Retrieve a continuous wave (CW) laser with 3 wavelengths: 405 nm, 473 nm, and 532 nm. Place 2 mirrors (M1 and M2) 150 mm apart and align them with their mirror planes at...

<ol>
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The LSFM system and technique described here utilizes a dual-sided illumination beam combined with an optical clearing to image the mouse heart at post-natal and adult stages of its development. A traditional single illumination beam suffers from photon scattering and absorption through thicker and larger tissue samples1,3. The dual-sided beams provide a more even illumination of the sample, thereby minimizing the effect of striping and other artifacts that are o...

Light-sheet fluorescence microscopy was a technique first developed in 1903 and is used today as a method to study gene expression and also to produce 3-D or 4-D models of tissue samples1,2,3. This imaging method uses a thin sheet of light to illuminate a single plane of a sample so that only that plane is captured by the detector. The sample can then be moved in the axial-direction to capture each layer, one section at a time, and render a 3-D model after the post-processing of the acquired images4. However, due to the absorption and scattering of photons, LSFM has been limited to samples that are either a few microns thick or are optically transparent1.
The limitations of LSFM have led to extensive studies of organisms that have tissues that are optically transparent, such as the zebrafish. Studies involving cardiac development and differentiation are often conducted on zebrafish since there are conserved genes between humans and zebrafish5,6. Although these studies have led to advances in cardiac research related to cardiomyopathies6,7, there is still a need to conduct similar research on higher-level organisms such as mammals.
Mammalian cardiac tissue presents a challenge due to the thickness and opacity of the tissue, the absorption due to hemoglobin in red blood cells, and the striping that occurs due to single-sided illumination of the sample under traditional LSFM methods1,8. To compensate for these limitations, we proposed to use dual-sided illumination and a simplified version of the CLARITY technique9 combined with a refractive index matching solution (RIMS). Therefore, this system allows for the imaging of a sample that is greater than 10 x 10 x 10 mm3 while maintaining a good quality resolution in the axial and lateral planes8.
This system was first calibrated using fluorescent beads arranged in different configurations within the glass tubing. Then, the system was used to image post-natal and adult murine hearts. First, the post-natal mouse heart was imaged at 7 days (P7) to reveal the ventricular cavity, the thickness of the ventricular wall, the valve structures, and the presence of trabeculation. Secondly, a study was conducted to identify cells that would differentiate into cardiomyocytes by using a post-natal mouse heart at 1 day (P1) with Cre-labeled cardiomyocytes and yellow fluorescent protein (YFP). Finally, adult mice at 7.5 months were imaged to observe the presence of renal outer medullary potassium (ROMK) channels after gene therapy8.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:967px;" width="967">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:247px;">CW Laser</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">Laserglow Technologies</td>
			<td style="width:393px;">LMM-GBV1-PF3-00300-05</td>
			<td style="width:191px;">Excitation of fluorophores</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:247px;">Neutral density filter</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">Thorlabs</td>
			<td style="width:393px;">NDC-50C-4M</td>
			<td style="width:191px;">Controls amount of light entering system</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:247px;">Achromatic beam expander</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">Thorlabs</td>
			<td style="width:393px;">GBE05-A</td>
			<td style="width:191px;">Expands the beam of light</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:247px;">Mechanical slit</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">Thorlabs</td>
			<td style="width:393px;">VA100C</td>
			<td style="width:191px;">Controls width of beam</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:247px;">Beam splitter</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">Thorlabs</td>
			<td style="width:393px;">BS013</td>
			<td style="width:191px;">Forms dual-illumination beam</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:247px;">Stereo microscope with 1X objective lense</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">Olympus</td>
			<td style="width:393px;">MVX10</td>
			<td style="width:191px;">Used for observation of sample</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:247px;">ORCA-Flash4.0 LT sCMOS camera</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">Hamamatsu Photonics</td>
			<td style="width:393px;">C11440-42U</td>
			<td style="width:191px;">Used to capture Images</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:247px;">Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">Stratasys</td>
			<td style="width:393px;">uPrint</td>
			<td style="width:191px;">Material used to 3-D print a sample holder</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:247px;">Fluorescent polystyrene beads</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">Spherotech Inc</td>
			<td style="width:393px;">PP-05-10</td>
			<td style="width:191px;">Used for imaging system calibration</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:247px;">Borosilicate glass tubing</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">Corning</td>
			<td style="width:393px;">Pyrex 7740</td>
			<td style="width:191px;">Tubing for sample embedding</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:247px;">Glycerol</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:393px;">BP229-4</td>
			<td style="width:191px;">Fill for sample chamber</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:247px;">Phosphate-buffered saline</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:393px;">BP39920</td>
			<td style="width:191px;">Rinse solution for mouse hearts</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:247px;">Paraformaldehyde</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">Electron microscopy sciences</td>
			<td style="width:393px;">RT-15700</td>
			<td style="width:191px;">First incubation solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="80">
			<td height="80" style="height:80px;width:247px;">Acrylamide</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">Wako Chemicals</td>
			<td style="width:393px;">AAL-107</td>
			<td style="width:191px;">Mixed with 2,2&#39;-Azobis dihydrochloride for second incubation solution for mouse hearts</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="60">
			<td height="60" style="height:60px;width:247px;">2,2&#39;-Azobis dihydrochloride</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">Wako Chemicals</td>
			<td style="width:393px;">VA-044</td>
			<td style="width:191px;">Mixed with Acrylamide for second incubation solution for mouse hearts</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="60">
			<td height="60" style="height:60px;width:247px;">Sodium dodecyl sulfate&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:393px;">71725</td>
			<td style="width:191px;">Mixed with Boric acid for third incubtion solution for mouse hearts</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="60">
			<td height="60" style="height:60px;width:247px;">Boric acid</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">Fischer Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:393px;">A74-1</td>
			<td style="width:191px;">Mixed with Sodium dodecyl sulfate for third incubtion solution for mouse hearts</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="80">
			<td height="80" style="height:80px;width:247px;">Sigma D2158</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:393px;">D2158</td>
			<td style="width:191px;">Mixed with PB, Tween-20, and Sodium azide as a refractive index matching solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="80">
			<td height="80" style="height:80px;width:247px;">Tween-20</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>11332465001</td>
			<td style="width:191px;">Mixed with Sigma D2158, PB, and Sodium azide as a refractive index matching solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="60">
			<td height="60" style="height:60px;width:247px;">Sodium azide</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>S2002</td>
			<td style="width:191px;">Mixed with Sigma D2158, PB, and Tween-20 as a refractive index matching solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="60">
			<td height="60" style="height:60px;width:247px;">Adeno-associated virus vector 9 with a cardiac-specific Troponin T promoter tagged with GFP</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">Vector Biolabs</td>
			<td style="width:393px;">VB2045</td>
			<td style="width:191px;">Expresses GFP when bound to ROMK</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="60">
			<td height="60" style="height:60px;width:247px;">DC Servo Motor Actuator</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">Thorlabs</td>
			<td style="width:393px;">Z825B</td>
			<td style="width:191px;">Used for movement of sample in axial direction within light sheet</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="60">
			<td height="60" style="height:60px;width:247px;">K-Cube Brushed DC Servo Motor Controller</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">Thorlabs</td>
			<td style="width:393px;">KDC101</td>
			<td style="width:191px;">Connects to motor actuator and controls movement of the actuator</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="60">
			<td height="60" style="height:60px;width:247px;">Amira</td>
			<td style="width:136px;">FEI Software</td>
			<td style="width:393px;">N/A</td>
			<td style="width:191px;">Visualization software for producing 2-D and 3-D images</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

light-sheet fluorescence microscopy for the study of the murine heart

Light-sheet fluorescence microscopy has been widely used for rapid image acquisition with a high axial resolution from micrometer to millimeter scale. Traditional light-sheet techniques involve the use of a single illumination beam directed orthogonally at sample tissue. Images of large samples that are produced using a single illumination beam contain stripes or artifacts and suffer from a reduced resolution due to the scattering and absorption of light by the tissue. This study uses a dual-sided illumination beam and a simplified CLARITY optical clearing technique for the murine heart. These techniques allow for deeper imaging by removing lipids from the heart and produce a large field of imaging, greater than 10 x 10 x 10 mm3. As a result, this strategy enables us to quantify the ventricular dimensions, track the cardiac lineage, and localize the spatial distribution of cardiac-specific proteins and ion-channels from the post-natal to adult mouse hearts with sufficient contrast and resolution.

The technique described here used a dual-sided illumination beam combined with an optical clearing of mouse heart tissue samples to achieve a deeper imaging depth and a larger imaging volume with sufficient imaging resolution (Figure 1). To calibrate the system, fluorescent beads were placed inside the glass tubing and within the imaging system. The beads were then imaged and visualized in the x-y plane, y-z plane, and in the x-z plane, to obtain the point sp...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Light-sheet Fluorescence Microscopy for the Study of the Murine Heart at JoVE.com

Light-sheet Fluorescence Microscopy for the Study of the Murine Heart

This study uses a dual-sided illumination light-sheet fluorescence microscopy (LSFM) technique combined with optical clearing to study the murine heart.

Light-sheet fluorescence microscopy has been widely used for rapid image acquisition with a high axial resolution from micrometer to millimeter scale. ...

The main advantage of this technology is that it allows for rapid imaging of either the mouse heart. And it can be used to observe the presence of air channels after gene therapy. Although this method can provide insight into development cardiology, it can also be applied to other systems, such as neurology and pulmonology.Generally, individuals will struggle with this technique because mounting an imaging of the adult mouse heart can be difficult, and it's different from other, traditional techniques, such as confocal and inverted microscopy. Place a continuous wave laser with three wavelengths of 405 nanometers, 473 nanometers, and 532 nanometers. Then, affix mirror one and align it with the mirror plane at 45 degrees to the beam.This will direct the laser toward the beam splitter, which forms the dual-sided illumination setup. Next, pass the beam through a 50 millimeter diameter neutral density filter, a beam expander, and a 25 millimeter diameter pin hole, all positioned 150 millimeters from each other. Pass the beam through a 50-50 beam splitter, placed 150 millimeters from the pinhole.Next, place mirror two 150 millimeters from the beam splitter, at 90 degrees to the forward beam, and align it so that its mirror plane is at a 45 degree angle to the beam. Then, place mirror three 100 millimeters from mirror two, and align it so that it's mirror plane is at a 45 degree angle to the beam reflected from mirror two. Use this reflected beam to form one side of the dual illumination light sheet.On the far side of the beam splitter, place mirror five so that it's mirror plane is at 45 degrees to the beam that is emitted in a forward direction. Use the beam emitted from mirror five to form the second side of the dual illumination light sheet. Next, set up the dual-sided illumination system in systemic fashion.Place cylindrical lens two 150 millimeters away from mirror three, and another identical cylindrical lens 150 millimeters away from mirror five, on the other side of the dual illumination setup. Next, place two mirrors, each in line with the cylindrical lenses, at distances of 50 millimeters to reflect the beam at 90 degrees. On both sides of the light sheet, form an achromatic doublet from a pair of lenses, with the first lens being placed 100 millimeters from the previous mirror, and having a one inch diameter and a focal length of 100 millimeters.The second lens should be placed 160 millimeters from lens one, with a diameter of one inch, and a focal length of 60 millimeters. Then, place the illumination objectives one and two 150 millimeters from the previous achromatic doublets, so that they are in line with the beam. The beam emitted from the objectives forms the light sheet for imaging the samples.First, prepare the fluorescent bead sample by diluting a 0.53 micrometer bead solution, one to 150, 000, in a pre-warmed refractive index matching solution, with one percent low melt pointing agarose. Next, use a piece of borosilicate glass tubing with an inner diameter of 12 millimeters, and an outer diameter of 18 millimeters, to a length of 30 millimeters. Pipette the bead agarose solution in the borosilicate tubing and allow the agarose to solidify at room temperature.Now, fill a 3-D printed ABS chamber with a 99.5 percent gylcerol solution. Place the borosilicate glass tubing, containing the beads, inside the chamber. Attach a 3-D motorized translational stage to the borosilicate glass tubing to control the movement and orientation of the sample within the ABS chamber.Then, use custom designed software to acquire images using the sCMOS camera, at a rate of 30 frames per second. Using the motor controller, move the sample one millimeter in the lateral direction, and acquire images at each one millimeter increment, until the entire sample has been imaged. Stack the acquired images using a visualization software, and measure the point spread function of the system using these bead images.Use a refractive index matching solution, with a pH of 7.5, and dissolve one percent agarose into the matching solution. Place a cleared adult mouse heart sample into the refractive index matching solution, with one percent agarose dissolved. Then, insert the sample into borosilicate glass tubing, and allow the agarose to solidify at room temperature.Attach a 3-D motorized translational stage to the borosilicate glass tubing to control the movement and orientation of the sample within a 3-D printed ABS chamber. Position the sample so that it is in the center of the Gaussian beam, created by the dual illumination system. Then, set the acquisition rate of the sCMOS camera to 30 frames per second.Now, using the motor controller, move the sample one millimeter in the axial direction and acquire images at each one millimeter increment. Continue until the entire sample has been imaged. Stack the acquired images using a visualization software.Develop the 3-D images using these image stacks. To accomplish this, deconvolve the point spread function determined previously, and utilize it for the acquired image stacks. Finally, set a pixel threshold intensity value to observe the contours of the heart, and add pseudo-color to the images, based on this gray-scale intensity.At day one post-natal, one can visualize the valves, atrium, ventricle, pectinate muscle, and trabeculation, among other features. At day seven post-natal, the features are even more defined. The atrium, ventricle, ventricular cavity dimensions, and ventricle wall thickness are all evident.To study cardiomyocyte differentiation within the heart, heterozygous knock-in mice were cre-labeled to show cardiomyocytes. The labeled cells are shown here, in each plane direction. The three planes were merged, to create a 3-D rendering of the heart.The red circled region within the inset shows two translucent mouse hearts after undergoing the clarity technique and being inserted into the borosilicate glass tubing. In addition to studying post-natal mice, the imaging system can also be used to study the adult mouse heart. Here, GFP tagged ROMK channels are shown at 7.5 months.These were mainly found in the ventricular wall. Once mastered, this technique can be done in one to two minutes. When attempting this procedure, it is important to remove all the bubbles around the sample in the tube.Other methods, such as auto-segmentation of the image stacks, can be performed to answer additional questions related to cardiovascular injury and regeneration. After its development, this technique was used by researchers to study the cardiac architecture in post-natal and adult developmental stages in mice.

light-sheet-fluorescence-microscopy-for-the-study-of-the-murine-heart

Research

JoVE Journal

Bioengineering

Design of a Cyclic Pressure Bioreactor for the Ex Vivo Study of Aortic Heart Valves

The aortic valve, located between the left ventricle and the aorta, allows for unidirectional blood flow, preventing backflow into the ventricle. Aortic valve leaflets are composed of interstitial cells suspended within an extracellular matrix (ECM) and are lined with an endothelial cell monolayer. The valve withstands a harsh, dynamic environment and is constantly exposed to shear, flexion, tension, and compression. Research has shown calcific lesions in diseased valves occur in areas of high mechanical stress as a result of endothelial disruption or interstitial matrix damage1-3. Hence, it is not surprising that epidemiological studies have shown high blood pressure to be a leading risk factor in the onset of aortic valve disease4. 
The only treatment option currently available for valve disease is surgical replacement of the diseased valve with a bioprosthetic or mechanical valve5. Improved understanding of valve biology in response to physical stresses would help elucidate the mechanisms of valve pathogenesis. In turn, this could help in the development of non-invasive therapies such as pharmaceutical intervention or prevention. Several bioreactors have been previously developed to study the mechanobiology of native or engineered heart valves6-9. Pulsatile bioreactors have also been developed to study a range of tissues including cartilage10, bone11 and bladder12. The aim of this work was to develop a cyclic pressure system that could be used to elucidate the biological response of aortic valve leaflets to increased pressure loads. 
The system consisted of an acrylic chamber in which to place samples and produce cyclic pressure, viton diaphragm solenoid valves to control the timing of the pressure cycle, and a computer to control electrical devices. The pressure was monitored using a pressure transducer, and the signal was conditioned using a load cell conditioner. A LabVIEW program regulated the pressure using an analog device to pump compressed air into the system at the appropriate rate. The system mimicked the dynamic transvalvular pressure levels associated with the aortic valve; a saw tooth wave produced a gradual increase in pressure, typical of the transvalvular pressure gradient that is present across the valve during diastole, followed by a sharp pressure drop depicting valve opening in systole. The LabVIEW program allowed users to control the magnitude and frequency of cyclic pressure. The system was able to subject tissue samples to physiological and pathological pressure conditions. This device can be used to increase our understanding of how heart valves respond to changes in the local mechanical environment.

Design of a Cyclic Pressure Bioreactor for the Ex Vivo Study of Aortic Heart Valves

A cyclic pressure bioreactor capable of subjecting heart valve tissue to physiological and pathological pressure conditions has been designed. A LabVIEW program allows users to control pressure magnitude, amplitude and frequency. This device can be used to study the mechanobiology of heart valve tissue or isolated cells.

The aortic valve, located between the left ventricle and the aorta, allows for unidirectional blood flow, preventing backflow into the ventricle. Aortic ...

Patient-specific Modeling of the Heart: Estimation of Ventricular Fiber Orientations

Patient-specific simulations of heart (dys)function aimed at personalizing cardiac therapy are hampered by the absence of in vivo imaging technology for clinically acquiring myocardial fiber orientations. The objective of this project was to develop a methodology to estimate cardiac fiber orientations from in vivo images of patient heart geometries. An accurate representation of ventricular geometry and fiber orientations was reconstructed, respectively, from high-resolution ex vivo structural magnetic resonance (MR) and diffusion tensor (DT) MR images of a normal human heart, referred to as the atlas. Ventricular geometry of a patient heart was extracted, via semiautomatic segmentation, from an in vivo computed tomography (CT) image. Using image transformation algorithms, the atlas ventricular geometry was deformed to match that of the patient. Finally, the deformation field was applied to the atlas fiber orientations to obtain an estimate of patient fiber orientations. The accuracy of the fiber estimates was assessed using six normal and three failing canine hearts. The mean absolute difference between inclination angles of acquired and estimated fiber orientations was 15.4 &deg;. Computational simulations of ventricular activation maps and pseudo-ECGs in sinus rhythm and ventricular tachycardia indicated that there are no significant differences between estimated and acquired fiber orientations at a clinically observable level.The new insights obtained from the project will pave the way for the development of patient-specific models of the heart that can aid physicians in personalized diagnosis and decisions regarding electrophysiological interventions.

A methodology to estimate ventricular fiber orientations from in vivo images of patient heart geometries for personalized modeling is described. Validation of the methodology performed using normal and failing canine hearts demonstrate that that there are no significant differences between estimated and acquired fiber orientations at a clinically observable level.

Patient-specific  simulations of heart (dys)function aimed at personalizing cardiac therapy are hampered  by the absence of in vivo imaging technology for ...

Creating Adhesive and Soluble Gradients for Imaging Cell Migration with Fluorescence Microscopy

Cells can sense and migrate towards higher concentrations of adhesive cues such as the glycoproteins of the extracellular matrix and soluble cues such as growth factors. Here, we outline a method to create opposing gradients of adhesive and soluble cues in a microfluidic chamber, which is compatible with live cell imaging. A copolymer of poly-L-lysine and polyethylene glycol (PLL-PEG) is employed to passivate glass coverslips and prevent non-specific adsorption of biomolecules and cells. Next, microcontact printing or dip pen lithography are used to create tracks of streptavidin on the passivated surfaces to serve as anchoring points for the biotinylated peptide arginine-glycine-aspartic acid (RGD) as the adhesive cue. A microfluidic device is placed onto the modified surface and used to create the gradient of adhesive cues (100% RGD to 0% RGD) on the streptavidin tracks. Finally, the same microfluidic device is used to create a gradient of a chemoattractant such as fetal bovine serum (FBS), as the soluble cue in the opposite direction of the gradient of adhesive cues.

A method for the assembly of adhesive and soluble gradients in a microscopy chamber for live cell migration studies is described. The engineered environment combines antifouling surfaces and adhesive tracks with solution gradients and therefore allows one to determine the relative importance of guidance cues.

Cells can sense and migrate towards higher concentrations of adhesive cues such as the glycoproteins of the extracellular matrix and soluble cues such as ...

3D Orbital Tracking in a Modified Two-photon Microscope: An Application to the Tracking of Intracellular Vesicles

The objective of this video protocol is to discuss how to perform and analyze a three-dimensional fluorescent orbital particle tracking experiment using a modified two-photon microscope1. As opposed to conventional approaches (raster scan or wide field based on a stack of frames), the 3D orbital tracking allows to localize and follow with a high spatial (10 nm accuracy) and temporal resolution (50 Hz frequency response) the 3D displacement of a moving fluorescent particle on length-scales of hundreds of microns2. The method is based on a feedback algorithm that controls the hardware of a two-photon laser scanning microscope in order to perform a circular orbit around the object to be tracked: the feedback mechanism will maintain the fluorescent object in the center by controlling the displacement of the scanning beam3-5. To demonstrate the advantages of this technique, we followed a fast moving organelle, the lysosome, within a living cell6,7. Cells were plated according to standard protocols, and stained using a commercially lysosome dye. We discuss briefly the hardware configuration and in more detail the control software, to perform a 3D orbital tracking experiment inside living cells. We discuss in detail the parameters required in order to control the scanning microscope and enable the motion of the beam in a closed orbit around the particle. We conclude by demonstrating how this method can be effectively used to track the fast motion of a labeled lysosome along microtubules in 3D within a live cell. Lysosomes can move with speeds in the range of 0.4-0.5 &#181;m/sec, typically displaying a directed motion along the microtubule network8.

In this video protocol we track - at high speed and in three dimensions - fluorescently labeled lysosomes within living cells, using the orbital tracking method in a modified two-photon microscope.

The objective of this video protocol is to discuss how to perform and analyze a three-dimensional fluorescent orbital particle tracking experiment using a ...

Light-sheet Fluorescence Microscopy to Capture 4-Dimensional Images of the Effects of Modulating Shear Stress on the Developing Zebrafish Heart

The hemodynamic forces experienced by the heart influence cardiac development, especially trabeculation, which forms a network of branching outgrowths from the myocardium. Genetic program defects in the Notch signaling cascade are involved in ventricular defects such as Left Ventricular Non-Compaction Cardiomyopathy or Hypoplastic Left Heart Syndrome. Using this protocol, it can be determined that shear stress driven trabeculation and Notch signaling are related to one another. Using Light-sheet Fluorescence Microscopy, visualization of the developing zebrafish heart was possible. In this manuscript, it was assessed whether hemodynamic forces modulate the initiation of trabeculation via Notch signaling and thus, influence contractile function occurs. For qualitative and quantitative shear stress analysis, 4-D (3-D+time) images were acquired during zebrafish cardiac morphogenesis, and integrated light-sheet fluorescence microscopy with 4-D synchronization captured the ventricular motion. Blood viscosity was reduced via gata1a-morpholino oligonucleotides (MO) micro-injection to decrease shear stress, thereby, down-regulating Notch signaling and attenuating trabeculation. Co-injection of Nrg1 mRNA with gata1a MO rescued Notch-related genes to restore trabeculation. To confirm shear stress driven Notch signaling influences trabeculation, cardiomyocyte contraction was further arrested via tnnt2a-MO to reduce hemodynamic forces, thereby, down-regulating Notch target genes to develop a non-trabeculated myocardium. Finally, corroboration of the expression patterns of shear stress-responsive Notch genes was conducted by subjecting endothelial cells to pulsatile flow. Thus, the 4-D light-sheet microscopy uncovered hemodynamic forces underlying Notch signaling and trabeculation with clinical relevance to non-compaction cardiomyopathy.

Here, we present a protocol to visualize developing hearts in zebrafish in 4-Dimensions (4-D). 4-D imaging, via light-sheet fluorescence microscopy (LSFM), takes 3-Dimensional (3-D) images over time, to reconstruct developing hearts. We show qualitatively and quantitatively that shear stress activates endocardial Notch signaling during chamber development, which promotes cardiac trabeculation.

The hemodynamic forces experienced by the heart influence cardiac development, especially trabeculation, which forms a network of branching outgrowths ...

Biaxial Mechanical Characterizations of Atrioventricular Heart Valves

Extensive biaxial mechanical testing of the atrioventricular heart valve leaflets can be utilized to derive&#160;optimal parameters used in constitutive models, which provide a mathematical representation of the mechanical function of those structures. This presented biaxial mechanical testing protocol involves (i) tissue acquisition, (ii) the preparation of tissue specimens, (iii) biaxial mechanical testing, and (iv) postprocessing of the acquired data. First, tissue acquisition requires obtaining porcine or ovine hearts from a local Food and Drug Administration-approved abattoir for later dissection to retrieve the valve leaflets. Second, tissue preparation requires using tissue specimen cutters on the leaflet tissue to extract a clear zone for testing. Third, biaxial mechanical testing of the leaflet specimen requires the use of a commercial biaxial mechanical tester, which consists of force-controlled, displacement-controlled, and stress-relaxation testing protocols to characterize the leaflet tissue&#39;s mechanical properties. Finally, post-processing requires the use of data image correlation techniques and force and displacement readings to summarize the tissue&#39;s mechanical behaviors in response to external loading. In general, results from biaxial testing demonstrate that the leaflet tissues yield a nonlinear, anisotropic mechanical response. The presented biaxial testing procedure is advantageous to other methods since the method presented here allows for a more comprehensive characterization of the valve leaflet tissue under one unified testing scheme, as opposed to separate testing protocols on different tissue specimens. The proposed testing method has its limitations in that shear stress is potentially present in the tissue sample. However, any potential shear is presumed negligible.

This protocol involves characterizations of atrioventricular valve leaflets with force-controlled, displacement-controlled, and stress-relaxation biaxial mechanical testing procedures. Results acquired with this protocol can be used for constitutive model development to simulate the mechanical behavior of functioning valves under a finite element simulation framework.

Extensive biaxial mechanical testing of the atrioventricular heart valve leaflets can be utilized to derive&#160;optimal parameters used in constitutive ...

Blood Flow Imaging with Ultrafast Doppler

The pulsed-Doppler effect is the main technique used in clinical echography to assess blood flow. Applied with conventional focused ultrasound Doppler modes, it has several limits. Firstly, a finely tuned signal filtering operation is needed to distinguish blood flows from surrounding moving tissues. Secondly, the operator must choose between localizing the blood flows or quantifying them. In the last two decades, ultrasound imaging has undergone a paradigm shift with the emergence of ultrafast ultrasound using unfocused waves. In addition to a hundredfold increase in framerate (up to 10000 Hz), this new technique also breaks the conventional quantification/localization trade-off, offering a complete blood flow mapping of the field of view and a simultaneous access to fine velocities measurements at the single-pixel level (down to 50 &#181;m). This data continuity in both spatial and temporal dimensions strongly improves the tissue/blood filtering process, which results in an increase sensitivity to small blood flow velocities (down to 1 mm/s). In this method paper, we aim to introduce the concept of ultrafast Doppler as well as its main parameters. Firstly, we summarize the physical principles of unfocused wave imaging. Then, we present the Doppler signal processing main steps. Particularly, we explain the practical implementation of the critical tissue/blood flow separation algorithms and on the extraction of velocities from these filtered data. This theoretical description is supplemented by in vitro experiences. A tissue phantom embedding a canal with flowing blood-mimicking fluid is imaged with a research programmable ultrasound system. A blood flow image is obtained and the flow characteristics are displayed for several pixels in the canal. Finally, a review of in vivo applications is proposed, showing examples in several organs such as carotids, kidney, thyroid, brain and heart.

This protocol shows how to apply ultrafast ultrasound Doppler imaging to quantify blood flows. After a 1 s long acquisition, the experimenter has access to a movie of the full field of view with axial velocity values for each pixel every &#8776;0.3 ms (depending on the ultrasound time of flight).

The pulsed-Doppler effect is the main technique used in clinical echography to assess blood flow. Applied with conventional focused ultrasound Doppler ...

In vivo Imaging of Biological Tissues with Combined Two-Photon Fluorescence and Stimulated Raman Scattering Microscopy

Stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) microscopy enables label-free imaging of the biological tissues in its natural microenvironment based on intrinsic molecular vibration, thus providing a perfect tool for in vivo study of biological processes at subcellular resolution. By integrating two-photon excited fluorescence (TPEF) imaging into the SRS microscope, the dual-modal in vivo imaging of tissues can acquire critical biochemical and biophysical information from multiple perspectives which helps understand the dynamic processes involved in cellular metabolism, immune response and tissue remodeling, etc. In this video protocol, the setup of a TPEF-SRS microscope system as well as the in vivo imaging method of the animal spinal cord is introduced. The spinal cord, as part of the central nervous system, plays a critical role in the communication between the brain and peripheral nervous system. Myelin sheath, abundant in phospholipids, surrounds and insulates the axon to permit saltatory conduction of action potentials. In vivo imaging of myelin sheaths in the spinal cord is important to study the progression of neurodegenerative diseases and spinal cord injury. The protocol also describes animal preparation and in vivo TPEF-SRS imaging methods to acquire high-resolution biological images.

In vivo Imaging of Biological Tissues with Combined Two-Photon Fluorescence and Stimulated Raman Scattering Microscopy

Stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) microscopy allows label-free imaging of biomolecules based on their intrinsic vibration of specific chemical bonds. In this protocol, the instrumental setup of an integrated SRS and two-photon fluorescence microscope is described to visualize cellular structures in the spinal cord of live mice.

Stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) microscopy enables label-free imaging of the biological tissues in its natural microenvironment based on intrinsic ...

Analysis of Zebrafish Cardiac Contraction with Virtual Reality Interaction

4D Light-sheet Imaging of Zebrafish Cardiac Contraction

Zebrafish is an intriguing model organism known for its remarkable cardiac regeneration capacity. Studying the contracting heart in vivo is essential for gaining insights into structural and functional changes in response to injuries. However, obtaining high-resolution and high-speed 4-dimensional (4D, 3D spatial + 1D temporal) images of the zebrafish heart to assess cardiac architecture and contractility remains challenging. In this context, an in-house light-sheet microscope (LSM) and customized computational analysis are&#160;used to overcome these technical limitations. This strategy, involving LSM system construction, retrospective synchronization, single cell tracking, and user-directed analysis, enables one to investigate the micro-structure and contractile function across the entire heart at the single-cell resolution in the transgenic Tg(myl7:nucGFP) zebrafish larvae. Additionally, we are able to further incorporate microinjection of small molecule compounds to induce cardiac injury in a precise and controlled manner. Overall, this framework allows one to track physiological and pathophysiological changes, as well as the regional mechanics at the single-cell level during cardiac morphogenesis and regeneration.

Author Spotlight: High-Resolution 4D Light-Sheet Imaging and Virtual Reality in Zebrafish for Single-Cell Analysis of Heart Function

This protocol utilizes light-sheet imaging to investigate cardiac contractile function in zebrafish larvae and gain insights into cardiac mechanics through cell tracking and interactive analysis.

Zebrafish is an intriguing model organism known for its remarkable cardiac regeneration capacity. Studying the contracting heart in vivo is essential for ...

Light-Sheet Microscopy and Tissue Clearing for Comprehensive Cardiac Imaging

Light-Sheet Imaging to Reveal Cardiac Structure in Rodent Hearts

Light-sheet microscopy (LSM) plays a pivotal role in comprehending the intricate three-dimensional (3D) structure of the heart, providing crucial insights into fundamental cardiac physiology and pathologic responses. We hereby delve into the development and implementation of the LSM technique to elucidate the micro-architecture of the heart in mouse models. The methodology integrates a customized LSM system with tissue clearing techniques, mitigating light scattering within cardiac tissues for volumetric imaging. The combination of conventional LSM with image stitching and multiview deconvolution approaches allows for the capture of the entire heart. To address the inherent trade-off between axial resolution and field of view (FOV), we further introduce an axially swept light-sheet microscopy (ASLM) method to minimize out-of-focus light and uniformly illuminate the heart across the propagation direction. In the meanwhile, tissue clearing methods such as iDISCO enhance light penetration, facilitating the visualization of deep structures and ensuring a comprehensive examination of the myocardium throughout the entire heart. The combination of the proposed LSM and tissue clearing methods presents a promising platform for researchers in resolving cardiac structures in rodent hearts, holding great potential for the understanding of cardiac morphogenesis and remodeling.

Author Spotlight: Customized Light-Sheet Imaging for Investigating Myocardial Structures in Rodent Hearts

The protocol utilizes advanced light-sheet microscopy along with adapted tissue clearing methods to investigate intricate cardiac structures in rodent hearts, holding great potential for the understanding of cardiac morphogenesis and remodeling.

Light-sheet microscopy (LSM) plays a pivotal role in comprehending the intricate three-dimensional (3D) structure of the heart, providing crucial insights ...