Name: assessment of spatial lingual tactile sensitivity using a gratings orientation test
Uploaded: 2021-09-17T15:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Assessment of Spatial Lingual Tactile Sensitivity using a Gratings Orientation Test at JoVE.com

We acknowledge all the participants, volunteers, and others involved in the study. We are grateful to Sandra Stolzenbach W&#230;hrens and Wender Bredie (University of Copenhagen) for designing the squares used in the present gratings orientation test. This research was funded by the University of Milan, Piano di sostegno alla ricerca 2018.

An informed, written consent has been signed by all participants. This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Milan (n. 48/19) and conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.
1. Training of experimenters
<ol>
	<li>Take the grating tool and apply a force of 100 g on a sponge placed on a scale. 
	NOTE: Refer to Figure 1 for the schematic of the grating tool used in this study</li>
	<li>Repeat this procedure at least 10 t...

<ol>
	<li>Guinard, J. X., Mazzucchelli, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+sensory+perception+of+texture+and+mouthfeel.">The sensory perception of texture and mouthfeel.</a> Trends in Food Science &amp; Technology. 7 (7), 213-219 (1996).</li><li>Jeltema, M., Beckley, J., Vahalik, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Food+texture+assessment+and+preference+based+on+mouth+behavior.">Food texture assessment and preference based on mouth behavior.</a> Food Quality and Preference. 52, 160-171 (2016).</li><li>Scott, C. L., Downey, R. 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A., Stieger, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Eating+behaviour+explains+differences+between+individuals+in+dynamic+texture+perception+of+sausages.">Eating behaviour explains differences between individuals in dynamic texture perception of sausages.</a> Food Quality and Preference. 41, 189-200 (2015).</li><li>Engelen, L., de Wijk, R. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Oral+processing+and+texture+perception.">Oral processing and texture perception.</a> Food Oral Processing: Fundamentals of Eating and Sensory Perception. 8, 157-176 (2012).</li><li>Stokes, J. R., Boehm, M. W., Baier, S. 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G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+letter-recognition+task+to+assess+lingual+tactile+acuity.">A letter-recognition task to assess lingual tactile acuity.</a> Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. 57 (11), 1324-1330 (1999).</li><li>Essick, G. K., Chopra, A., Guest, S., McGlone, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Lingual+tactile+acuity,+taste+perception,+and+the+density+and+diameter+of+fungiform+papillae+in+female+subjects.">Lingual tactile acuity, taste perception, and the density and diameter of fungiform papillae in female subjects.</a> Physiology &amp; Behavior. 80 (2-3), 289-302 (2003).</li><li>Van Boven, R. W., Johnson, K. O. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+limit+of+tactile+spatial+resolution+in+humans:+grating+orientation+discrimination+at+the+lip,+tongue,+and+finger.">The limit of tactile spatial resolution in humans: grating orientation discrimination at the lip, tongue, and finger.</a> Neurology. 44 (12), 2361 (1994).</li><li>Moritz, J., Turk, P., Williams, J. D., Stone-Roy, L. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Perceived+intensity+and+discrimination+ability+for+lingual+electrotactile+stimulation+depends+on+location+and+orientation+of+electrodes.">Perceived intensity and discrimination ability for lingual electrotactile stimulation depends on location and orientation of electrodes.</a> Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 11, 186 (2017).</li><li>Bach-y-Rita, P., Kaczmarek, K. A., Tyler, M. E., Garcia-Lara, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Form+perception+with+a+49-point+electrotactile+stimulus+array+on+the+tongue:+a+technical+note.">Form perception with a 49-point electrotactile stimulus array on the tongue: a technical note.</a> Journal Of Rehabilitation Research and Development. 35, 427-430 (1998).</li><li>O'Mahony, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Understanding+discrimination+tests:+A+user-friendly+treatment+of+response+bias,+rating+and+ranking+R-index+tests+and+their+relationship+to+signal+detection.">Understanding discrimination tests: A user-friendly treatment of response bias, rating and ranking R-index tests and their relationship to signal detection.</a> Journal of Sensory Studies. 7 (1), 1-47 (1992).</li><li>Lee, H. S., Van Hout, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Quantification+of+sensory+and+food+quality:+The+R-index+analysis.">Quantification of sensory and food quality: The R-index analysis.</a> Journal of Food Science. 74 (6), 57-64 (2009).</li><li>Bi, J., O'Mahony, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Updated+and+extended+table+for+testing+the+significance+of+the+R-index.">Updated and extended table for testing the significance of the R-index.</a> Journal of Sensory Studies. 22, 713-720 (2007).</li><li>Bertoli, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Taste+sensitivity,+nutritional+status+and+metabolic+syndrome:+Implication+in+weight+loss+dietary+interventions.">Taste sensitivity, nutritional status and metabolic syndrome: Implication in weight loss dietary interventions.</a> World Journal of Diabetes. 5 (5), 717 (2014).</li><li>Robinson, K. M., Klein, B. P., Lee, S. Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Utilizing+the+R-index+measure+for+threshold+testing+in+model+caffeine+solutions.">Utilizing the R-index measure for threshold testing in model caffeine solutions.</a> Food Quality and Preference. 16 (4), 283-289 (2005).</li><li>Appiani, M., Rabitti, N. S., Methven, L., Cattaneo, C., Laureati, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Assessment+of+lingual+tactile+sensitivity+in+children+and+adults:+Methodological+suitability+and+challenges.">Assessment of lingual tactile sensitivity in children and adults: Methodological suitability and challenges.</a> Foods. 9 (11), 1594 (2020).</li><li>Cattaneo, C., Liu, J., Bech, A. C., Pagliarini, E., Bredie, W. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cross-cultural+differences+in+lingual+tactile+acuity,+taste+sensitivity+phenotypical+markers,+and+preferred+oral+processing+behaviors.">Cross-cultural differences in lingual tactile acuity, taste sensitivity phenotypical markers, and preferred oral processing behaviors.</a> Food Quality and Preference. 80, 103803 (2020).</li><li>Abraira, V. E., Ginty, D. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+sensory+neurons+of+touch.">The sensory neurons of touch.</a> Neuron. 79 (4), 618-639 (2013).</li><li>Johnson, K. O., Phillips, J. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tactile+spatial+resolution.+I.+Two-point+discrimination,+gap+detection,+grating+resolution,+and+letter+recognition.">Tactile spatial resolution. I. Two-point discrimination, gap detection, grating resolution, and letter recognition.</a> Journal of Neurophysiology. 46 (6), 1177-1192 (1981).</li><li>Phillips, J. R., Johnson, K. O. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tactile+spatial+resolution.+II.+Neural+representation+of+bars,+edges,+and+gratings+in+monkey+primary+afferents.">Tactile spatial resolution. II. Neural representation of bars, edges, and gratings in monkey primary afferents.</a> Journal of Neurophysiology. 46 (6), 1192-1203 (1981).</li></ol>

Few valid instruments are available for measuring tactile acuity10,11,13,22. Von Frey filaments have been shown to be an adequate method for measuring both skin and oral tactile acuity10,21,22. However, these instruments measure a different dimension of lingual tactile acuity than the gratings orientat...

The texture and mouthfeel of food play an important role in liking1,2,3,4, and while research has found differences in texture perception due to factors such as chewing behavior2,5,&#160;saliva flow, and composition6,7, there are limited methods available to assess variation in oral tactile receptors (mechanoreceptors). The oral cavity houses different types of mechanoreceptors found in the mouth: Merkel receptors, Ruffini cylinders, and Meissner corpuscles8. Mechanoreceptors can be classed into two groups: slowly adapting and rapidly adapting. Slowly adapting mechanoreceptors (Ruffini cylinders and Merkel receptors) produce signals continuously while being stimulated. In contrast, rapidly adapting mechanoreceptors (Meissner&#39;s corpuscles) respond to the beginning and end of stimulation with a signal. Tactile acuity varies widely across tongue surfaces and between individuals, possibly due to differences in mechanoreceptor sensitivity. The location and the number of mechanoreceptors in the oral cavity, the differences in the spatial arrangement/density of the mechanoreceptors (spatial acuity), or the differences in their sensitivity when activated could be the cause of this intra- and inter-individual variability. Several methods to evaluate and screen for variation in mechanoreceptor sensitivity in the oral cavity have been published, including von Frey filaments9,10, letter recognition11,12, grating orientation tests13, and flexible electrode array14,15. The gratings orientation test requires square gratings (Figure 1, Figure 2) with different groove widths to be placed on the tongue of a blindfolded subject. They indicate if subjects perceive the gratings to be in either a horizontal or vertical orientation. Responses are used to calculate average thresholds based on the subject&#39;s ability to discriminate the orientation for the different grating sizes.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Custom-made squares</td>
			<td>University of Reading; University of Copenhagen</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Squares of 1 cm2 from polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Disinfenctant solution (20% sodium hypochlorite)</td>
			<td>Amuchina, Angelini S.p.A., Roma, Italy</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Eye masks</td>
			<td>Various</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gloves</td>
			<td>Various</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lab coat</td>
			<td>Various</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plastic cup for drinking water</td>
			<td>Various</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Excel</td>
			<td>Microsoft</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

assessment of spatial lingual tactile sensitivity using a gratings orientation test

Individual thresholds by R-index estimates are calculated using a gratings orientation test (6 different tools of increasing grating size from 0.20-1.25 mm) to assess spatial lingual tactile sensitivity. During the experiment, the subjects are blindfolded and asked to specify the orientation of the grating (either horizontal or vertical) placed on the tongue. R-index is based on Signal Detection Theory (SDT), and it is an estimated probability of correctly identifying a target stimulus (the signal, e.g., the correct orientation) compared to an alternative stimulus (the noise, e.g., the incorrect orientation). Once the R-index values for each subject and each tool dimension are calculated, it is possible to derive the individual threshold by interpolating the two R-indices immediately below and above the established cut-off (typically 75%) based on one-sided R-index critical values. This procedure can be helpful in the medical field to study the association between oral tactile sensitivity, speech clarity, and swallowing disorders, as well as in sensory and consumer studies to explore individual variation in texture perception, food preferences, and eating behavior.

A total of 70 healthy adults (age range = 19-33 years; mean age = 22.0; 52.9% women) were involved in the study, as shown in Appiani et al. (2020)21.
As an example, the R-index distribution by age for square 0.75 mm is reported in Figure 4. Each point represents a different subject. Subjects above the dotted line (cut-off value: 0.7426) are those who correctly identify the orientation of the grating (more sensitive).
<p class="jove_cont...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Assessment of Spatial Lingual Tactile Sensitivity using a Gratings Orientation Test at JoVE.com

Assessment of Spatial Lingual Tactile Sensitivity using a Gratings Orientation Test

This work illustrates a standard procedure and threshold determination by the R-index to assess spatial lingual tactile sensitivity using a gratings orientation test.

Individual thresholds by R-index estimates are calculated using a gratings orientation test (6 different tools of increasing grating size from 0.20-1.25 ...

This video illustrates a procedure to assess spatial lingual tactile size sensitivity using a grating orientation test. Similar tools have been used to measure tactile acuity at the body level, and particularly on the fingertips of the hands. However, few methodological approaches exist to measure sensitivity at the oral level.And specifically on the tongue. This procedure can be helpful in the medical feed to study the association between oral tactile sensitivity, speech clarity, and swallowing disorders, as well as in sensory consumer studies to explore individual variation in texture perception, food preferences, and eating behavior. Demonstrating the procedure will be Camilla Cattaneo post doc fellow, Marta Appiani research assistant student and Noemi Sofia Rabitti, PhD student at the university of Milan.Prior to the test, the experimenter must be trained to standardize the force applied on the subjects tongue. Take the tool and apply a force of 100 grams on a sponge placed on a scale. Display all gratings on a table.Once the participant sits on a comfortable chair, inform the participant that they can leave the experiment at any time. Inform the participant that they will be blindfolded during the experiment and asked to stick out their tongue in a comfortable and relaxed way. To familiarize the subjects with the procedure.Use the largest grating of 1.25 millimeter to demonstrate the force applied. Notify the participants that they can take a sip of water whenever deemed appropriate. Apply each grating onto the subject's tongues at the anterior region around the midline.After each touch ask the subjects to indicate the tools vertical or horizontal orientation and their degree of sureness. Subjects must guess if they do not know. After each touch, record all the answers for each subject on a spreadsheet and repeat each grating as many times as deemed necessary.Prepare a solution consisting of 20 milliliters of sodium hypochlorite diluted in one liter of water according to the manufacturer's instructions. Manually shake the solution for a few seconds, fill six cups with approximately 20 milliliters of the disinfectant solution to fully immerse each tool in the solution. Place each tool in the corresponding cup and let the tools soak for 15 to 20 minutes.Rinse the tools with plenty of water and allow the tools to air dry. Create a response matrix for each volunteer and all the tools based on the response frequencies used to calculate the R-index using the R-index equation. This is an example of a data set, for each subject the R-index values in bold are the ones used to calculate the subjects threshold by interpolating the two R indices immediately below and above the cutoff.In the current study, each grating was repeated six times and the corresponding tabulated cutoff was 0.74. The performance for the six gratings and the derived R-index threshold estimate of one subject is reported in the current study. In this case, the threshold corresponds to 0.99 millimeters.The subjects with low threshold values were able to recognize a smaller bar size and were sensitive. In comparison, the subjects with high threshold values required more input with a larger bar size to perceive the stimulus cognitively and were less sensitive. In the shown case threshold values ranged from 0.20 to 1.2 millimeters.The subjects with a threshold less than 0.20 millimeters, were able to recognize the orientation of the squares from the smallest size. Conversely, the subjects with a threshold value greater than 1.25 millimeters could not discriminate any of the grating sizes. An example of a threshold data set is represented.It is very important that the experimenters are treated and calibrated before conducting the test to ensure that a concept and standardized force is exerted on the subjects tongues. This protocol shows a new innovative way to measure lingual tactile acuity and allows us to study the association between oral tactile sensitivity, food preferences, food choices, and nutrition status.

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Research

JoVE Journal

Behavior

Measuring Sensitivity to Viewpoint Change with and without Stereoscopic Cues

The speed and accuracy of object recognition is compromised by a change in viewpoint; demonstrating that human observers are sensitive to this transformation. Here we discuss a novel method for simulating the appearance of an object that has undergone a rotation-in-depth, and include an exposition of the differences between perspective and orthographic projections. Next we describe a method by which human sensitivity to rotation-in-depth can be measured. Finally we discuss an apparatus for creating a vivid percept of a 3-dimensional rotation-in-depth; the Wheatstone Eight Mirror Stereoscope. By doing so, we reveal a means by which to evaluate the role of stereoscopic cues in the discrimination of viewpoint rotated shapes and objects.

We discuss a novel method forviewpoint-rotation of visual stimuli, and demonstrate using a mirror stereoscopethe three-dimensional percept of rotation-in-depth. The technique can be used to investigate the role of stereoscopic cues in encoding viewpoint-rotated figures.

The speed and accuracy of object recognition is compromised by a change in viewpoint; demonstrating that human observers are sensitive to this ...

Quantitative Assessment of Cortical Auditory-tactile Processing in Children with Disabilities

Objective and easy measurement of sensory processing is extremely difficult in nonverbal or vulnerable pediatric patients. We developed a new methodology to quantitatively assess children&#39;s cortical processing of light touch, speech sounds and the multisensory processing of the 2 stimuli, without requiring active subject participation or causing children discomfort. To accomplish this we developed a dual channel, time and strength calibrated air puff stimulator that allows both tactile stimulation and sham control. We combined this with the use of event-related potential methodology to allow for high temporal resolution of signals from the primary and secondary somatosensory cortices as well as higher order processing. This methodology also allowed us to measure a multisensory response to auditory-tactile stimulation.

Objective and easy measurement of sensory processing is extremely difficult in nonverbal or vulnerable pediatric patients. We developed a new methodology to quantitatively assess infants and children&#39;s cortical processing of light touch, speech sounds, and the multisensory processing of the 2 stimuli, without requiring active subject participation or causing discomfort in vulnerable patients.

Objective and easy measurement of sensory processing is extremely difficult in nonverbal or vulnerable pediatric patients. We developed a new methodology ...

Assessment of Social Cognition in Non-human Primates Using a Network of Computerized Automated Learning Device (ALDM) Test Systems

Fagot &#38; Paleressompoulle1 and Fagot &#38; Bonte2 have published an automated learning device (ALDM) for the study of cognitive abilities of monkeys maintained in semi-free ranging conditions. Data accumulated during the last five years have consistently demonstrated the efficiency of this protocol to investigate individual/physical cognition in monkeys, and have further shown that this procedure reduces stress level during animal testing3. This paper demonstrates that networks of ALDM can also be used to investigate different facets of social cognition and in-group expressed behaviors in monkeys, and describes three illustrative protocols developed for that purpose. The first study demonstrates how ethological assessments of social behavior and computerized assessments of cognitive performance could be integrated to investigate the effects of socially exhibited moods on the cognitive performance of individuals. The second study shows that batteries of ALDM running in parallel can provide unique information on the influence of the presence of others on task performance. Finally, the last study shows that networks of ALDM test units can also be used to study issues related to social transmission and cultural evolution. Combined together, these three studies demonstrate clearly that ALDM testing is a highly promising experimental tool for bridging the gap in the animal literature between research on individual cognition and research on social cognition.

Assessment of Social Cognition in Non-human Primates Using a Network of Computerized Automated Learning Device ALDM Test Systems

Fagot &#38; Paleressompoulle1 have published an automated learning device (ALDM) aimed at testing individual cognitive abilities in semi-free ranging monkeys. The main goal of our protocol is to use a network of ALDM test units to study social cognition in non-human primates.

Fagot &#38; Paleressompoulle1 and Fagot &#38; Bonte2 have published an automated learning device (ALDM) for the study of cognitive abilities of monkeys ...

Measurement of Vibration Detection Threshold and Tactile Spatial Acuity in Human Subjects

Tests that allow the precise determination of psychophysical thresholds for vibration and grating orientation provide valuable information about mechanosensory function that are relevant for clinical diagnosis as well as for basic research. Here, we describe two psychophysical tests designed to determine the vibration detection threshold (automated system) and tactile spatial acuity (handheld device). Both procedures implement a two-interval forced-choice and a transformed-rule up and down experimental paradigm. These tests have been used to obtain mechanosensory profiles for individuals from distinct human cohorts such as twins or people with sensorineural deafness.

Here, we present protocols to determine vibration detection thresholds and tactile acuity using psychophysical methods in man.

Tests that allow the precise determination of psychophysical thresholds for vibration and grating orientation provide valuable information about ...

Testing Tactile Masking between the Forearms

Masking, in which one stimulus affects the detection of another, is a classic technique that has been used in visual, auditory, and tactile research, usually using stimuli that are close together to reveal local interactions. Masking effects have also been demonstrated in which a tactile stimulus alters the perception of a touch at a distant location. Such effects can provide insight into how components of the body's representations in the brain may be linked. Occasional reports have indicated that touches on one hand or forearm can affect tactile sensitivity at corresponding contralateral locations. To explore the matching of corresponding points across the body, we can measure the spatial tuning and effect of posture on contralateral masking. Careful controls are required to rule out direct effects of the remote stimulus, for example by mechanical transmission, and also attention effects in which thresholds may be altered by the participant's attention being drawn away from the stimulus of interest. The use of this technique is beneficial as a behavioural measure for exploring which parts of the body are functionally connected and whether the two sides of the body interact in a somatotopic representation. This manuscript describes a behavioural protocol that can be used for studying contralateral tactile masking.

Here we explore contralateral tactile masking between the forearms in which tactile detection thresholds are modulated by vibration applied to a remote site. The details of which remote sites have an effect can tell us about how the body is represented in the brain.

Masking, in which one stimulus affects the detection of another, is a classic technique that has been used in visual, auditory, and tactile research, ...

The 4 Mountains Test: A Short Test of Spatial Memory with High Sensitivity for the Diagnosis of Pre-dementia Alzheimer's Disease

This protocol describes the administration of the 4 Mountains Test (4MT), a short test of spatial memory, in which memory for the topographical layout of four mountains within a computer-generated landscape is tested using a delayed match-to-sample paradigm. Allocentric spatial memory is assessed by altering the viewpoint, colors and textures between the initially presented and target images.
Allocentric spatial memory is a key function of the hippocampus, one of the earliest brain regions to be affected in Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD) and impairment of hippocampal function predates the onset of dementia. It was hypothesized that performance on the 4MT would aid the diagnosis of predementia AD, which manifests clinically as Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI).
The 4MT was applied to patients with MCI, stratified further based on cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) AD biomarker status (10 MCI biomarker positive, 9 MCI biomarker negative), and with mild AD dementia, as well as healthy controls. Comparator tests included tests of episodic memory and attention widely accepted as sensitive measures of early AD. Behavioral data were correlated with quantitative MRI measures of the hippocampus, precuneus and posterior cingulate gyrus.
4MT scores were significantly different between the two MCI groups (p = 0.001), with a test score of &#8804;8/15 associated with 100% sensitivity and 78% specificity for the classification of MCI with positive AD biomarkers, i.e., predementia AD. 4MT test scores correlated with hippocampal volume (r = 0.42) and cortical thickness of the precuneus (r = 0.55).
In conclusion, the 4MT is effective in identifying the early stages of AD. The short duration, easy application and scoring, and favorable psychometric properties of the 4MT fulfil the need for a simple but accurate diagnostic test for predementia AD.

The 4 Mountains Test: A Short Test of Spatial Memory with High Sensitivity for the Diagnosis of Pre-dementia Alzheimer&#039;s Disease

This article describes the 4 Mountains Test (4MT), a hippocampus-dependent test of working allocentric spatial memory. The hippocampus is affected early in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and this article outlines the 4MT methodology and results of patient testing, which demonstrates the value of the 4MT in the diagnosis of pre-dementia AD.

This protocol describes the administration of the 4 Mountains Test (4MT), a short test of spatial memory, in which memory for the topographical layout of ...

Assessing Spatial Memory Impairment in a Mouse Model of Traumatic Brain Injury Using a Radial Water Tread Maze

Despite the recent increase in use of mouse models in scientific research, researchers continue to use cognitive tasks that were originally designed and validated for rat use. The Radial Water Tread (RWT) maze test of spatial memory (designed specifically for mice and requiring no swimming) has been shown previously to successfully distinguish between controlled cortical impact-induced TBI mice and sham controls. Here, a detailed protocol for this task is presented. The RWT maze capitalizes on the natural tendency of mice to avoid open areas in favor of hugging the sides of an apparatus (thigmotaxis). The walls of the maze are lined with nine escape holes placed above the floor of the apparatus, and mice are trained to use visual cues to locate the escape hole that leads out of the maze. The maze is filled with an inch of cold water, sufficient to motivate escape but not deep enough to require that the mouse swim. The acquisition period takes only four training days, with a test of memory retention on day five and a long-term memory test on day 12. The results reported here suggest that the RWT maze is a feasible alternative to rat-validated, swimming-based cognitive tests in the assessment of spatial memory deficits in mouse models of TBI.

Here we present a protocol for a mouse-specific test of cognition that does not require swimming. This test can be used to successfully distinguish controlled cortical impact-induced traumatic brain injury mice from sham controls.

Despite the recent increase in use of mouse models in scientific research, researchers continue to use cognitive tasks that were originally designed and ...

A Behavioral Test Battery for the Repeated Assessment of Motor Skills, Mood, and Cognition in Mice

Pharmacological and toxicological studies in neurodegeneration require comprehensive behavioral analysis in mice because motor dysfunctions and dysfunctions in mood and cognition are common and often shared symptoms in neurodegenerative diseases. Shown here is a behavioral test battery for motor, mood, and cognition, which can be repeatedly tested in a longitudinal study. This battery assesses the overall behavioral phenotype in mice by examining each domain of behavior with at least two independent well-accepted tests (i.e., open-field test and rotarod test for motor function, social interaction test, elevated plus maze test, and forced swim test for emotional function, and Morris water maze test and novel object recognition test for cognitive function). Therefore, this sensitive and comprehensive test battery is a powerful tool for the study of behavioral alternation in neurodegeneration.

A comprehensive behavioral test battery of motor skills, mood&#8212;including social interaction, depression, and anxiety&#8212;and cognition is designed for the repeated assessment of neurodegeneration-related behavioral changes in mice.

Pharmacological and toxicological studies in neurodegeneration require comprehensive behavioral analysis in mice because motor dysfunctions and ...

Applying Incongruent Visual-Tactile Stimuli during Object Transfer with Vibro-Tactile Feedback

The application of incongruent sensory signals that involves disrupted tactile feedback is rarely explored, specifically with the presence of vibrotactile feedback (VTF). This protocol aims to test the effect of VTF on the response to incongruent visual-tactile stimuli. The tactile feedback is acquired by grasping a block and moving it across a partition. The visual feedback is a real-time virtual presentation of the moving block, acquired using a motion capture system. The congruent feedback is the reliable presentation of the movement of the block, so that the subject feels that the block is grasped and see it move along with the path of the hand. The incongruent feedback appears as the movement of the block diverts from the actual movement path, so that it seems to drop from the hand when it is actually still held by the subject, thereby contradicting the tactile feedback. Twenty subjects (age 30.2 &#177; 16.3) repeated 16 block transfers, while their hand was hidden. These were repeated with VTF and without VTF (total of 32 block transfers). Incongruent stimuli were presented randomly twice within the 16 repetitions in each condition (with and without VTF). Each subject was asked to rate the difficulty level of performing the task with and without the VTF. There were no statistically significant differences in the length of the hand paths and durations between transfers recorded with congruent and incongruent visual-tactile signals &#8211; with and without the VTF. The perceived difficulty level of performing the task with the VTF significantly correlated with the normalized path length of the block with VTF (r = 0.675, p = 0.002). This setup is used to quantify the additive or reductive value of VTF during motor function that involves incongruent visual-tactile stimuli. Possible applications are prosthetics design, smart sport-wear, or any other garments that incorporate VTF.

We present a protocol to apply incongruent visual-tactile stimuli during an object transfer task. Specifically, during block transfers, performed while the hand is hidden, a virtual presentation of the block shows random occurrences of false block drops. The protocol also describes adding vibrotactile feedback while performing the motor task.

The application of incongruent sensory signals that involves disrupted tactile feedback is rarely explored, specifically with the presence of vibrotactile ...

Assessment of Midline Lingual Point-Pressure Somatosensation Using Von Frey Hair Monofilaments

Detection and discrimination threshold estimates for oral point pressure are assessed using Von Frey Hair monofilaments. Consistent with previously published protocols, threshold estimates are determined using a two-interval forced choice (2-IFC) paradigm with a three down/one up approach. Detection threshold estimates determine the mean force in which a participant can identify the presence of pressure. During the detection threshold procedure, the participant is instructed to choose which of two sequentially presented observation intervals contained the tactile test stimulus. If the participant performs three correct detections in a row (i.e., 3 &#39;hits&#39;), the researcher decreases the stimulus to the next lower target force level. With one incorrect detection (a &#39;miss&#39;), the researcher increases the force delivered to the next higher level. This threshold estimation approach is known as a 3-down/1-up adaptive staircase. Reponses are recorded on a paper ballot, and a participant&#39;s estimated threshold is defined as the geometric mean of five reversals. During the discrimination threshold procedure, the participant is asked to make a choice between two serially presented stimuli as to which is the &#34;harder&#34; or &#34;stronger&#34; pressure. The same scoring of &#39;hits&#39;, &#39;misses&#39;, and stopping points are used. Detection and discrimination testing for oral point pressure at tongue midline takes approximately 20 min to complete. Using these commercially-available clinical tools, individual touch sensation profiles for the midline tongue can be achieved in a relatively time and cost effective means.

This work describes a standard method to assess tactile sensation at the midline of the tongue tip. Using Von Frey Hair (VFH) monofilaments, this protocol provides estimates of detection and discrimination threshold estimates for oral point pressure (OPP).

Detection and discrimination threshold estimates for oral point pressure are assessed using Von Frey Hair monofilaments. Consistent with previously ...